Abstract
In the 1950s and 1960s, control and protection systems for complex systems, say for process and nuclear systems, were built around valve-based technology and later employed electromagnetic relay logics. In the 1970s, solid-state technology changed the way protection and controls were built. Solid-state electronic technology employed microchips to process the control and logics and provided an elegant solution for the design of control and protection systems. These systems were finding applications through the 1970s until the end of the millennium when digital technology was used even in safety-critical systems.
Each business is a violation of digital Darwinism, the evolution of consumer behavior when society and technology evolve faster than the ability to exploit.
Brain Solis
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Appendix: Sample Data of Digital System Failure Rates [8]
Appendix: Sample Data of Digital System Failure Rates [8]
S. No. | Component name | Unit | Failure mode | Failure rate/Probability | Error factor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Processor module [Advent 645C and primary rack] | /h | Fail to generate trip output | 3.24 × 10−6 | 3 |
2 | Digital input/output card | /h | Fail to generate trip output | 8.96 × 10−7 | 3 |
3 | A/D module | /h | Fail to generate trip output | 2.0 × 10−6 | 3 |
4 | Fiber-optic transmitter | /h | Fail to actuate | 4.4 × 10−6 | 3 |
5 | Watchdog timer | /d | Fail to open | 8.21 × 10−8 | 3 |
6 | Shunt trip device | /d | Fail to energize | 1.2 × 10−4 | 3 |
7 | U/V trip device | /d | Fail to energize | 1.7 × 10−3 | 3 |
8 | Reactor trip circuit breaker | /d | Fail to open | 4.5 × 10−5 | 3 |
9 | Push button switch | /d | Fail to function | 1.5 × 10−5 | 3 |
10 | Interposing relay | /d | Fail to de-energize | 6.2 × 10−6 | 3 |
11 | Instrument power supply | /d | Fail to supply | 1.6 × 10−3 | 3 |
12 | 125 VDC bus supply | /d | Fail to supply | 1.8 × 10−8 | 3 |
13 | Pressure transmitter | /h | Fail to provide signal | 4.4 × 10−6 | 3 |
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Varde, P.V., Pecht, M.G. (2018). Digital System Reliability. In: Risk-Based Engineering. Springer Series in Reliability Engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0090-5_11
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