Abstract
This chapter starts with a review of global public education reforms, emphasizing choice, efficiency , equity, excellence, and international competence , to summarize the meaning of school choice in a global context. By introducing theories and ideologies of educational selection , this chapter summarizes the shift of educational ideology with social change in China as background knowledge to further understand the development of Zexiao . Then, it reviews the development of Zexiao in China through social development and the changes in public school admission policies between the 1980s and the 2000s. It introduces the diversity and complexity of public junior high school admission and the channels of student placement in this process. The chapter concludes by summarizing the nature of Zexiao by examining the similarities and differences between Zexiao and school choice in general.
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Notes
- 1.
According to Goldman (2006, p. 405), the number of urban youth in “sending down” movement was 14 million.
- 2.
Enrollment by examination had the effect of excluding children from worker, peasant, and revolutionary ranks. The exam system was argued that it had been justified and supported by leading cadres in the ministry, those “handfuls of renegades, secret agents, and capitalist roaders” scraped together by Liu Shaoqi (Cleverley, 1985, p. 168).
- 3.
According to Henze (1992, pp. 103–104), it has always been used as a verbal weapon among competing political factions and intellectual circles in China . This term has been used in conjunction with calls for advancement or with programs of immediate action, which would subsequently receive support from particular groups in the leadership for some level of implementation. The term has been used to refer to the PRC’s backwardness in comparison with developed nations, that is to say, with “modern” societies—predominately those in the West. Not surprisingly, the indigenous term “four modernizations” stood first and foremost for a conception of economic reform that was to increase production and improve distribution and was guided by more rational modes of planning than had previously been relied on. Whether it was later called “socialist modernization” (shehui zhuyi de xiandaihua) or “modernization with Chinese characteristics” (Zhongguo tese de xiandanhua), to quote Deng Xiaoping, “the four modernizations mean economic construction.” Henze pointed out that modernization with development was equalized by Deng Xiaoping and other political elite in China even though it is not the case in the established view in Western sociology. From the very beginning, the assumption has been accepted that “modernization” will lead to material wealth, to a happier life for most of the population, and thus to a “strong socialist China.”
- 4.
A historical review of policies shows that the concept of quality education is not totally new in China ’s education development. The similar concept has already existed in Mao’s era. In 1957, Mao (1969) pointed out that: “Our education doctrine should let students develop through moral education, intellectual education and physical education. They should become laborers with socialist consciousness and knowledge.” In the following years, Mao repeatedly expressed his opinion to require students to take part in productive labor and necessary social activities instead of studying all days. Besides advocating that the exam system should be reformed, Mao also pointed out that students should do something else while studying. They should study not only knowledge but also learn from workers, farmers, and soldiers. Also they should criticize capitalism. Furthermore, school hours should be reduced (Mao, 1969). Mao’s statements had already showed his focus on the development of individual students, balance between study and productive labor, and reform of the examination system. In fact, these opinions on education of Mao were put into action in the Cultural Revolution . The exam system was terminated. And the young people in urban areas were sent to rural areas to work and study from farmers. Similar to Mao’s education policy, during the National Education Conference in 1978, Deng reemphasized the need for the well-rounded development of individuals. He pointed out that the school admission should also give focus on this perspective. Nevertheless, in terms of the attitude toward exams, Deng held a different opinion from Mao. In the same conference, Deng explained that, “The exam is an important method to check study and teaching effect. It just looks like the quality control which is a necessary system for keeping a productive level in the factory. Of course, we cannot over depend on exams as viewing them as the only approach to evaluate education performance. Rather, we need to do serious research and experiment to improve content and types of exams to improve performance. Regarding those who do not perform well on the exam, we should encourage and help them instead of giving them unnecessary mental pressure” (Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, 1984).
- 5.
Originally, “Efficiency first, give attention to equity” is an economic principle in terms of income and distribution. However, this slogan was directly simplified and used as reform criteria in various fields. In fact, such phenomenon is very representative in Chinese society. The focus on economic reform made the discourse on economy a hegemonic power. Due to the left behind reform in education and other fields, these fields had to borrow many concepts and ideologies from economic reform. Consequently, people started to use economic concepts and understanding to deal with issues in education (D. Yang, 2006, p. 103).
- 6.
In this survey, the choices for respondents also include (1) enriching humanity, (2) getting preferred jobs, (3) living overseas, (4) getting higher social status, (5) contributing to national development, (6) for the society, and (7) becoming internationally active (Sonoda, 2008, p. 58).
- 7.
This information also took reference from http://www.edu.cn/20051018/3156152.shtml, accessed on August 19, 2011.
- 8.
According to the policy above, the government pointed out that Chinese society as a whole was in harmony. However, there were many problems which were conflicting with the harmony in the society. Mainly, the conflicts include imbalanced socioeconomic development between urban and rural areas and regions with the increasing pressure of demography and environment. The serious problems also include employment, social security, income redistribution, education, medical care, housing, security in production, social safety, and so forth. Related systems and mechanisms were not satisfactory; the democratic legal system has not been accomplished. The social trust and social morality are losing among some members in the society. Some leaders’ quality and capability are not suitable for the new trend in China ’s development. Corruption was relatively serious in some fields. And there were some anti-government activities which were threats to national security and social stability (National Congress of Communist Party of China, 2006).
- 9.
President Xi Jinping elaborated the “new normal” as the following features. First, the economy has shifted gears from the previous high-speed to a medium-to-high-speed growth. Second, the economic structure is constantly improved and upgraded. Third, the economy is increasingly driven by innovation instead of input and investment (Zhang & Yao, 2014).
- 10.
This is a widely known Confucian slogan for education. It means a good scholar can become an official.
- 11.
The term guanxi is understood as “connections” between people in order to exchange favors (Bian, 1994; Hwang, 1987). Guanxi represents a relational Chinese culture or interpersonal connections of sentiments and obligations that dictate social interaction and facilitate favor exchanges in Chinese society, past and present (Bian, 2002).
- 12.
According to Fang (2011), originally, this system aims to distribute G6 students within a region equally and randomly to junior high schools by computer. However, due to the different school facilities and human resources between schools within one region, there is a gap between public schools in the same region. Since the established school lottery system was not reliable to guarantee the access to better schools for children, parents were not interested in this system. Comparing with school lottery system, Zexiao provided possibility for parents to send their children to better public school through paying additional school fees. Consequently, Zexiao became more and more popular in urban China.
- 13.
This survey involved 14,081 participants from 31 provinces of China .
- 14.
Dongcheng District is one of the core areas of Beijing. Traditionally, there are many old and popular primary schools and junior high schools in this district.
- 15.
Haidian District is located in IT industry area of Beijing. There are many nation class universities in this district. And it has rich public education resource, including countrywide known primary schools and junior high schools.
- 16.
This information comes from homepage of Educational Examinations Center of Dongcheng District of Beijing. Retrieved from http://www.dcks.org.cn/news/show.php?id=505, accessed on August 7, 2011.
- 17.
The survey was conducted by 21st Century Education Research Institute from April 2011 to August 2011. The author was one of the members of the project.
- 18.
This survey was conducted from July 11 to August 12, 2011, by 21st Century Education Research Institute in cooperation with Education Channel of Sina.com. There were 525 participants from 35 cities involved in this survey.
- 19.
The diverse of Zexiao was also identified by Li (2008).
- 20.
Mainly, existing discourses on Zexiao was categorized as money-based Zexiao , power-based Zexiao , and score-based Zexiao. With the abolishment of the entrance exam to junior high schools, comparing with exam scores, awards received from various contests, and certificates issued for special talents and other relevant certificates is becoming important in the process of Zexiao. Therefore, in this research, I would like to use the term “achievement-based Zexiao ” to involve both exam-based Zexiao and certificate-based Zexiao.
- 21.
In Chinese, “Yijia” means negotiable price. “Yijia students” (yijiasheng) refers to students whose school admission can be negotiated by paying a school fee. And the school fee is negotiable. “Xuanxiao students” refers to students who choose their preferred schools without going to the school assignment by the local education authority. “Jiedu” means borrowing space for schooling. “Xuanxiao” means choosing school. “Jiedu students” refers to students who do not have local hukou in specific school districts enter school through paying money.
- 22.
According to Tsang (2003, p. 165), people-run schools are schools sponsored and managed by a community of people or a collective organization and funded by resources from the community or financial assistance from the state, etc.
- 23.
FESCO refers to Beijing Foreign Enterprise Human Resources Service Co., Ltd., founded in 1979 and being the first state-owned company in China to provide professional service of human resources to foreign enterprises’ representative offices in China foreign financial institutions and economic organizations, has a long history of providing professional HR service, and is highly experienced in the market and fully qualified to provide such service.
- 24.
The overall development, originally defined by Mao Zedong, refers to the holistic moral, intellectual, physical development of individual students. Deng Xiaoping reemphasized this idea in 1977 (Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, 1984).
- 25.
Regarding three excellence students , Mingyuan Gu, President of Chinese Education Society, showed his opinion to abolish the evaluation activity in 1998. He elaborated the positive role of this evaluation in stipulating that students’ motivation increased to study hard. On the other hand, he pointed out that since some places linked it with education transition, it has been involved into the track of exam-oriented education. And thus, “three excellence student” becomes the competition for education transition (Gu & Li, 2007).
- 26.
From 2003, Beijing Municipal Education Commission established a compulsory education monitoring system through a standard test for students in G5 in some districts. This system was gradually introduced at the city level in recent years. According to this standard, the result of the standard test in G5 shares 60% of the total student quality evaluation. It is considered as the only standard evaluation of students from G1 to G5. Retrieved from http://www.jiajiaxue.com/Course-987.html, http://www.aoshu.com/e/20100712/4c3a888f4d492.shtml, accessed on July 6, 2011.
- 27.
According to National Education Examination Authority, PETS is a five-level framework of proficiency English examination in China . It is being established to satisfy the requirements of social reform and opening up policies, to assist in meeting the needs of expansion in communications with foreign countries and to reform the current public English examination in China. The five-level framework ranges from the level of English equivalent to that of junior high school level to the level required by graduates studying/working overseas. It is available to all learners of the language, with no restriction on age, profession, or academic background. Starting in 1999, there is an increasing number of participants in PETS. In 2007, the number of participants reached over one million for the first time. Retrieved from http://sk.neea.edu.cn/yydjks/xmjs.jsp?class_id=26_12_01_03, accessed on March 2, 2012.
- 28.
According to Wu (2012), Zhankeng refers to “place-holding.”
- 29.
According to Fang (2011), the International Olympic Math Contest started from 1959 aiming at searching for genius in math among junior high school students. From 1985, China officially sent players to take part in the international contest. In recent years, winners in this contest were enrolled by top-ranking universities.
- 30.
A survey conducted by the 21st Century Education Research Institute gives a detailed explanation on these terms. “Golden Class” refers to classes which have close connection with the top-ranking junior high schools. Without taking such a class, it is impossible to be enrolled by the top-ranking schools. “Silver Class” refers to the classes which are closely connected with the popular schools among parents, and the possibility of enrollment through taking these classes is relatively lower than “Golden Class.” “Earth Class” refers to classes related to ordinary key schools. “Trash Class” represents classes which have no relation with key school enrollment (21st Century Education Research Institute, 2011).
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Liu, J. (2018). A Critical Definition of Zexiao . In: Inequality in Public School Admission in Urban China. Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects, vol 43. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8718-9_2
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