Abstract
In the eyes of Fang Huan, he could accept students’ request of dismissing Dai Li and Pan Shusheng, and hiring someone more qualified to teach them. The traditional idea which had been passed down from late Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 AD)—female’s pursuit of knowledge is not encouraged—might still have an influence on Fang Huan. Although he was a scholar who specialized in classical civilizations of China, but he had participated actively in the Revolution of 1911. So as a man who was more interested in a new society which differs from the traditional orders, there is no evidence that Fang could have turned a deaf ear to the students’ desire for knowledge, no matter they are male or female students. What’s more, judging from an introduction Fang wrote for the college in the year around 1918, he had great expectations on these female students (Fang 1918) (Photo 4.1). Perhaps the key question is how to “direct them to knowledge”, while still “maintaining feudal etiquette”.
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Notes
- 1.
Fang Huan (1867–1932) whose courtesy name is Weiyi, was from Penglang Township, Xinyang County (in east China’s Jiangsu Province). He had set up a new-type school in his early years, established Tinglin Society, and participated actively in the Hundred Days’ Reform movement. In 1906, he was appointed as the president of both Kunxin Education Society and Chamber of Commerce. Later, he served as a member of the Jiangsu Provincial Assembly and a member of the Advisory Council of Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) government. He had been active in politics. When the Revolution of 1911 broke out, he engaged in the restoration task of Kunshan City, together with members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. When the revolution succeeded, he was recommended as the head of civil affairs of Kunshan government (equals to a county head). He devoted himself to the political affairs and made pretty much contribution in office. After the Republic of China was founded, he served, respectively, as the president of Beijing Female Normal School, Shanghai Merchant Service Bureau Public School, and Nantong Female Normal College, making a great contribution to the education sector.
- 2.
Please refer to Chap. 2, Sect. 2 “The Initiating of Reorganization”.
- 3.
There are two kinds of sayings about Chen Zhongfan’s positions when he took office at the college. The first saying, as Cheng Junying put it, Chen had been hired as the director of their Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language. “After a face-to-face discussion between the college president, middle-man, and teacher Chen, they decided to hire Chen as the director and teacher of three subjects, General Theory of the Study of Classics, An Introduction to Ancient Chinese Philosophers, and Study of Chinese Characters. However, the second kind of sayings shows that Chen was hired only to be a teacher at first, not as the department director. The author adopted the second kind of sayings here, with reasons as follows. First, according to Chen’s narration, his chronicle and brief biography, he worked as a teacher of the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language in August 1918, and he didn’t mention anything about the position of the department director.
(2) The job offer letter that Fang Huan wrote just mentioned asking Chen Zhongfan to become their Chinese language and literature teacher, lecturing three subjects, no information about asking him to work as the department director.
(3) Beijing Female Higher Normal College Literature and Art Journal (hereinafter referred to as “Literature and Art Journal”) is a periodical established by this grade of female students under the guidance of Chen Zhongfan, which published not only a large number of these female students’ assignments on literary and art research, but also recorded many important events during the college’s academic years. Seen from the College Chronicle of This Academic Year published on the first issue of Literature and Art Journal, the chronicles started from August 1918 and ended on May 11, 1919. It is clearly stated that “Chen Zhongfan was hired as the director of the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language in January 1919.” And, there is no information about whether he had become the department director in August 1918. So if Chen was hired as the department director in August 1918, then there must be a record in the chronicle section. Since there was no such information, and judging from Chen’s narration and letters written with Fang Huan, the author deduced that when Chen arrived at the college first, he was only hired as a teacher.
- 4.
There was no information about how and when Liu Shipei became his teacher in Chen Zhongfan’s narration. But from the book Yizheng Mr. Liu’s Biography and Postscript of Liu Shipei’s Collection of Interpretation and Introduction to Rites of Zhou (“In September, the 8th year since the foundation of the People’s Republic of China, Zhongfan went back to the capital and visited his teacher Mr. Liu at his residence. Mr. Liu was suffering from lung disease for a long time…” When Liu Shipei was in the period of critically ill, he entrusted his unfinished work to Zhongfan for further arrangement and publishing work.) We can come to the conclusion undoubtedly that Liu Shipei was once Chen Zhongfan’s teacher.
Most of Chen Zhongfan’s students thought Liu Shipei became Chen’s teacher as soon as Chen was admitted to the philosophy department and thought that Cai Yuanpei had already become the president of Peking University and had won over Liu Shipei and other professors’ support, so there was the saying that Chen became acquaintance with Cai. But actually, Cai Yuanpei didn’t accept the appointment of becoming Peking University’s president until the end of 1916, and he didn’t invite Liu Shipei to teach the students until the next autumn. So, the previous kind of saying is hard to hold water. Chen Zhongfan became a cram class teacher after graduation and was enrolled in the research institute as a postgraduate in the autumn of 1917. At that time, Liu Shipei became a teacher in Peking University and was teaching at the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language, so the author presumed that Chen probably became Liu Shipei’s student at that moment.
- 5.
There are two kinds of sayings about when Chen Zhongfan started teaching at the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language in Beijing Female Normal School, one started from August 1918, and the other started in April 1918. The first kind of saying is supported by Chen Zhongfan himself, his student Cheng Junying, and his later disciples.
The second kind of saying mainly comes from the evidence based on Fang Huan’s job offer letters with Chen Zhongfan and Feng Youlan’s records. According to the content and date of Fang Huan’s job offer letters, Fang and Chen had made an agreement on March 25, 1918, that Chen would start teaching after the school holidays before spring semester. They had settled the subjects, content, and salary. Specific classes schedule would be settled down within the holidays. And, Chen’s first-month salary of 72 yuan had been mailed to him. The academic year of Beijing Female Normal School was divided into three semesters, and the school holiday of spring semester “lasted from April 1 to April 7.”
So, if there are no other special situations, Chen Zhongfan should have started his teaching work after April 7, 1918, when the school was open the for spring semester. What’s more, Feng Youlan and Chen Zhongfan were good friends when they were studying in the Philosophy Department at Peking University. Feng was one grade younger than Chen, and the two jointly organized the first academic organization in Peking University in 1917, the Philosophy Society. When Chen graduated from university, Feng and other schoolmates held a party for him. So Feng should be very clear about Chen’s changes. According to a document immediately published after Feng visited the Beijing Female Normal School before his graduation in June 1918, Chen Zhongfan had already started teaching at the female college, and what he said about Chen’s teaching content was in consistent with what was written in Fang Huan’s letter. And, Chen Zhongfan’s narration about things in August 1918 was written more than 60 years later, and relevant document by his student Cheng Junying and other disciples were written after Chen’s narration, so they might use Chen’s narration directly. Therefore, the author favors the second kind of saying.
- 6.
“In January 1919 (the 8th year since the foundation of the Republic of China), a meeting on teaching affairs was held, discussing to hire Chen Jiaoxuan as the director of the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language.”.
- 7.
Yao Yongpu (1862–1939), courtesy name Zhongshi, also named Suyuan, is from the city of Tongcheng, Anhui Province. He worked as a teacher in Peking University since the foundation of the Republic of China. His works are Tuishixuan Work Collection, Tuishixuan Work Collection Sequel, Literature Study Methodologies, History Study Methodologies and others.
- 8.
Liu Shipei (1884–1919), born in a traditional family of scholars of the studies of classics. In 1904, he became a friend of Zhang Taiyan in Shanghai and tended to support the revolution, with the work of Social Contract of Chinese People, which advocates fighting against autocracy. Later he had disagreements with Zhang Taiyan and turned from the revolutionary front to the reactionary front and joined the Chou’an Society, working on Yuan Shikai’s attempt to restore the monarchy. Cai Yuanpei appointed him as a professor of Peking University in 1917. He formed the Traditional Chinese Learning monthly journal with Huang Kan, Zhu Xizhu, Ma Xulun and other scholars, and became a member of the Guo Cui School. He died of tuberculosis at the age of 36 in Beijing, on November 20, 1919. His main works were later collected and published by Nan Guixin, Qian Xuantong and others, named Posthumous Works of Mr. Liu Shenshu.
- 9.
Liu Shipei passed away on November 20, 1919, so he just finished a small part of his teaching tasks that year.
- 10.
According to the timetable of different research directions within the Chinese Language and Literature Research Institute, published on Peking University Daily on Dec 4, 1917, all Peking University graduates have the right to join the institute voluntarily, and senior undergraduates and scholars who have obtained similar education like Peking University graduates can also join the institute, but with the permit of the directors and president. All these people are researchers to the institute.
- 11.
“Jiaoxuan: I received your letter yesterday, saying that the class time at the female college had been rescheduled to the first three lessons on Saturdays. I was quite agreed on this. A moment ago, I received another letter from the office of teaching affairs of the female college, saying ‘the class time were scheduled on the third and fourth lessons on Thursday and Saturday afternoons,’ different from what it was said in the previous letter. I wish it could be settled according to the previous schedule. And, I need to make a preparation before teaching these female students, so let’s start the first class next week. Please help me check about it. Wish you all the best. Yours, Shipei. Wednesday.”.
- 12.
Fu Shinian’s articles commenting on literature revolution were published in the New Youth and The Renaissance magazines from 1918 to 1919.
- 13.
Full text of the Petition of Restructuring Beijing Female Normal School to Beijing Female Higher Normal College in 1917 is as follows:
Beijing Female Normal School is writing to ask to restructure itself to Beijing Female Higher Normal College, please approve it. According to the record, our school submitted a draft for the preparation of restructuring the college in February, 1917. Later, we set up two affiliated middle school classes in August, and we stopped enrolling students for normal preparatory class and added the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language. In August, 1918, we continued recruiting students for the department of painting and handwork. All these changes were for the restructure plan. However, as the number of provincial female normal college is increasing, our school’s name was not changed yet and our department was just set up this year, many students doubted learning at our school. Thus, changing our school's name is urgent to meet the current need. So we changed our school’s name to Beijing Female Higher Normal College and will start drafting its regulations immediately and inform provincial education department for regular enrollment. Now, all the reasons that our school should be changed into Beijing Female Higher Normal College are presented here for your inspection and approval. Yours Sincerely.
Additional information: Seen form the petition presented in previous paragraph, the submission of the petition should be done after “they recruited students for the department of painting and handwork.” So it should be after August, 1918. But the petition’s title in Author Zhu’s book reads 1917. There is something wrong with the time here, and it is probably a mistake made when excerpting the article from historical materials. Maybe, the time in the title was later added by Zhu, not the original compiler.
- 14.
Zhu Xi quoted Yan Zhitui’s words to stress that it was very dangerous if women took part in a country’s politics or housekeeping.
- 15.
Deng Chunlan’s letter to Cai Yuanpei was written on May 19, 1919. Her letter was sent to Beijing and was supposed to be brought to Cai Yuanpei by Cai Xiaozhou. However, the letter arrived at an inappropriate time during the May Fourth Movement and when Cai Yuanpei resigned and was preparing to leave Beijing, so the letter didn’t work effectively. But Deng Chunlan didn’t become discouraged because of it, and she left Lanzhou for Beijing in July, 1919. She wrote an article named Appeal to Primary and High School Female Graduates, and handed over to the media, together with her letter to Cai Yuanpei. In early August 1919, many big newspapers in Beijing and Shanghai published Deng Chunlan’s appeal and her letter to Cai Yuanpei. The Beijing Morning Post published her article on their sixth edition on August 3, named as Deng Chunlan’s Appeal to Cancel Ban Forbidding Females to Enter University with Males. The Republic of China Daily in Shanghai published Deng’s article on its eighth edition on August 8, named as Appeal by Deng Chunlan about Female and Male Studying in Same University. Deng Chunlan’a call for universities to cancel the ban of forbidding enrolling females students echoed with the New Culture Movement and won the support of many famous scholars such as Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao and Hu Shih. Lidazhao. They also wrote articles to support female liberation, female and male students studying in same universities. It arose heated debate across the nation. However, there was no official response to this until September 19, 1919, when Cai Yuan regained his position as the president of Peking University. And, Peking University didn’t enroll female students to liberal art majors until February, 1920.
- 16.
Although by August, 1919, state-run higher education institutions didn’t cancel the ban to allow enrolling female students, such as Peking University and Nanjing Higher Normal University. However, there was record that private Utopia University in Shanghai had started enrolling female students in 1916, Shanghai Painting and Art College recruited 11 female students including Pan Yuliang in the autumn of 1919, and the French Higher College established by Beijing Huafa Education Society whose president was Cai Yuanpei, recruited two female students on December 1, 1919. If starting from the year of 1917 when Beijing Female Higher Normal College restructured itself, the latter two universities started enrolling female students later than Beijing Female Higher Normal College. Although there was a record that Utopia University’s started enrolling female students in 1916, we couldn’t know the exact situation there, and it’s a private university. So the first group of female graduates of state-run universities is the students of Beijing Female Higher Normal College.
- 17.
On March 1, 1919, Peking University faculty senate passed a regulation named Guideline to Teaching Affairs Management of Liberal Art and Science. They decided to integrate the teaching affairs management of liberal art and science departments and all jointly ruled by one monitor. On April 8 this year, directors of two faculty senates of liberal art and science, and directors of politics and economy departments held a meeting, deciding to put the new guideline into practice ahead of schedule and elected Ma Yinchu as the monitor. Thus, Chen Duxiu’s position, the head of teaching affairs of liberal art departments, was dismissed. So Chen Duxiu lost the power of hiring teachers in November, 1919, and the university permitted a year’s holiday to him and asked him to prepare the course of History of Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) which was going to open in the next semester. Chen left Peking University in January, 1920. Considering this, we may learn that Chen Zhongfan’s recall cannot be believed entirely, as he had the possibility of “self-boasting”. However, as a former monitor of liberal art in Peking University and with a high reputation in May Fourth Movement, during a shortage of teachers for preparatory courses of Peking University, Chen Duxiu probably had the ability to recommend a graduate and a former cram class teacher for the university’s preparatory classes to be promoted as a teacher of the preparatory class. And, Chen Duxiu didn’t left Peking University until January, 1920. Therefore, we use and believe Chen Zhongfan’s saying here.
- 18.
Chen Fuchen traveled down to the southern part of China as his brother died in 1917. However, Chen also passed away due to excessive sorrow, aged 59.
- 19.
In October, 1917, Peking University president Cai Yuanpei and other scholars proposed to the Ministry of Education to adopt elective courses in Peking University as a pilot project, considering to develop student’s individual personality. However, as elective system was “a big reform in Chinese education system, the results and problems cannot be predicted in a short period” (Hu Shih’s words), Peking University didn’t put it into practice until 1919. Probably affected by Cai’s idea and the event, Chen Zhongfan put forward the elective system in the Department of Chinese Literature and Language, with an aim to develop students’ characters. Exact plan and content about the elective system proposed by Chen Zhongfan can be found from Chen Jiaoxuan’s speech on liberal art reform, published by Beijing Female Higher Normal College Literature and Art Journal. All quoted content in the following paragraphs came from this article, with no more notes.
- 20.
Detailed information see Chap. 2 of this book.
- 21.
Shen Zengzhi (1850–1920), was born in Jiaxing City, Zhejiang Province. His courtesy name is Zipei, and he also got names like Xunzhai, Yi’an, Xunzhai Hermit, Dongxuanzhilisou, etc. He was well learned, having a good knowledge of not only ancient and modern China, but also Western countries. He was well renowned home and abroad, and was dubbed as “Chinese great intellectual”.
- 22.
Wang Guowei (1877–1927), was born in Yanguan Town, Haining City, Zhejiang Province. His courtesy name was Jing’an, also named as Guantang, and he was a Xiucai (entry-level licentiate who passed local-level imperial exam) in late Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). He had achieved something in every sector of Chinese modern literature, aesthetics, history, philosophy, ancient Chinese characters, and archeology, and was a great master of Chinese literature and language.
- 23.
Scholars’ speeches can be referred to Table 4.12 of this book, and the list of teachers can be referred to Table 4.10 of this book. Something should be mentioned here is that there was no record of the teaching experience of Zhang Yaoxiang, Wu Yifang and Cheng Hengzhe. And the three’s teaching experience can be referred to Cheng Junying and Su Xuelin’s memories.
- 24.
What needs to be explained here is that according to the curriculum form and teaching faculty list recorded on the third issue of Beijing Female Higher Normal College Literature and Art Journal, Hu Shih taught those female students the course Overview of Western Philosophy. However, according to the record in the third volume of Complete collection of Hu Shih’s diary, the course Hu Shih taught in the Beijing Female Higher Normal College should be Chinese Philosophy History, and his lecturing content had exceeded the content in his book Chinese Philosophy History Outline, which stopped at the historical period before Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC). For example, it is clearly marked on page 179 that the content of the course is Methodology in Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127 AD), and also explained on page 189 of Lu Xiangshan and Wang Yangming. Thus, according to Hu Shih’s diary and the recall of student Cheng Junying and Su Xuelin, Hu taught them the course of Chinese Philosophy History, mainly based on his book Chinese Philosophy History Outline.
- 25.
According to the record in the Complete collection of Hu Shih’s diary, he started detailed recording his schedule in November 12, 1919. From his writings, Hu Shih had already been teaching at the Department of Chinese Literature and Language in Beijing Female Higher Normal College. His course is Chinese Philosophy, from 10:00 to 12:00 every Thursday, divided into three classes. But when did Hu Shih started teaching at Beijing Female Higher Normal College was not known, and his teaching experience in the college was also not recorded in the book First Edition of Hu Shih’s Chronicle. According to the curriculum form and teaching faculty list recorded on Beijing Female Higher Normal College Literature and Art Journal, Hu Shih spent a year teaching freshmen in the Department of Chinese Literature and Language, which was from August, 1919 to June, 1920. However, whether he stopped teaching in the college in June was not stated. What’s more, according to Hu’s diary, his course started from 10:00 to 11:00, divided into two classes in 1920. His course ended in June, 1920. Since June 14 (Monday), there was no recorded diary (maybe lost or no diary), and it didn’t appear until August 27, 1920, when there was no record of him teaching at Beijing Female Higher Normal College. As the school year ended in June at Beijing Female Higher Normal College, thus we predicted that Hu Shih stopped lecturing around June 10, or the week after that, but within June.
- 26.
According to the curriculum recorded on the third issue of Beijing Female Higher Normal College Literature and Art Journal, Li Dazhao only taught them sociology. However, according to Cheng Junying’s memory, Li set up three courses at the college successively. As the third issue of Beijing Female Higher Normal College Literature and Art Journal was published around 1921, his latter courses might not be included. And, as the actual courses might always differ from the curricula plan, thus, we takes Cheng’s saying here.
- 27.
Li Dazhao once wrote in his article, “Last month, when I was talking about this question at the Department of Chinese Literature and Language of Beijing Female Higher Normal College, it arouse female students’ interest in the training of librarians and the vocation… I believe in the near future, students in the female college will help open a new era of Chinese library movement.” The article was first recorded by Junyin (pen name of Cheng Junying), and was published on Social Welfare - Female Weekly on December 19, 1921.
- 28.
Hu Shih had written a series of articles on women liberation during the New Culture Movement period. In his definition of democratic society, the liberation of female and the independence of female individuals are indispensable requirements. His articles included Issues of Chastity, Discussion on Issues of Chastity, More Discussion on Issues of Chastity, Discussion on Women Being Stained after Being Raped, U.S. Women, What to Do for Women Liberation, Universities Starting Recruiting Female Students, Female Issue. In his eyes, “women has a charm, which if better used, can help revive the declining situation and encourage those who are coward, as well as helping educate residents and form a well social atmosphere… If a country’s women are free and independent, then, they can help improve the morality of its citizens and refine citizens’ character.” Thus, the key issue is to break the boundary of “The man goes out to work, while the woman looks after the house,” and to establish “the philosophy of more than a good wife and a good mother”, in order to fully develop female’s individuality and to let them strive for a “free and independent ‘person’.”
In Li Dazhao’s imagination of an ideal society, the liberation of women also had important meanings. In his view, the realization of a democratic society was closely related with women’s liberation. If women were excluded from social life, “then, the society must be an autocratic, self-willed, barbarous, cruel and dull society, with no spirit of democracy.” Thus, if people want to realized a democratic society, women must be liberated first, “letting women’s peaceful and loving spirit…change the autocratic society into a democratic society.” What’s more important, “all classes in the society can be changed…but only the boundary of female and male is permanent, changeable. So, the democracy between male and female is more important than anything.” He also pointed out that the purpose of seeking for women’s rights should include four aspects, “equal opportunity to education as men”, “freedom of selecting any kinds of jobs,” “legal rights of participating in government and political affairs,” and recognition of women’s involvement in “social life”. And, education rights ranked first among the four rights. “Being well educated is the precondition of the vocation requirement in women’s life. Women’s right to education seems more important than the recognition of their right to participate in government and political affairs.”.
- 29.
According to the first issue of the Literature and Art Journal, the Literature and Art Research Society was established in January 1919. But in the second issue of the Literature and Art Journal, it wrote that the society was set up in March 1919. The author presumably thought that the difference in time was caused by different evaluation criterion. The former one was in accordance to the time when the society’s general rules were drafted, while the latter one was probably in accordance to the time when different departments of the society were formed.
- 30.
While publishing society members’ works on the journal, they also published many advertisements of other student publications. For example, in the second issue of Literature and Art Journal, there were advertisement of Peking University students’ magazine The Renaissance and Engineering at the end of argumentative essays. At the end of poem and prose, there were advertisement of journal The Young China, Hunan Education Monthly, and Sports Weekly. At the end of appendix, there were the introduction of Social New Sounds Bimonthly, Physics and Chemistry Magazine, New Air Monthly, and New Taste.
- 31.
According to the record of the first issue of Literature and Art Journal, besides publishing the “news in females circle overseas” and “news in females circle in China”, these female students also posted information of “their college chronicles”, “curricula and teacher list of the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language”, as well as “events of their society”. Most of their focus was limited to the affairs of their college, their department and the female circle. In the second issue of Literature and Art Journal, these female students’ focus broke through the boundary of their department, their college and their female circle, and they started fixing their sight into the external and wider society. In the third issue of Literature and Art Journal, their focus on the academia and social affairs outside their campus was no longer limited in publishing advertisement (No advertisement of other student publications were published on the third issue), but was transferred to reality issues and research methods in their argumentative essays.
- 32.
Female students, such as Tao Xuan, allied with the female circle in Beijing and set up the Beijing Civilian Female Vocational College in June 1919. During the meeting, Tao Xuan was elected as the president of the school. They introduced the “work-study programs” in their school, hoping “females can start making livings for themselves” and curing Chinese “weakness” of “hemiplegia.”.
- 33.
Su Xuelin, Cheng Junying, Zhang Zhengyi and other female students in their class all worked as editors in the Social Welfare—Female Weekly. And, many students including Lu Yin, Feng Yuanjun and Cheng Junying got their articles published on the magazine (Please refer to Appendix 2 of this book).
- 34.
In her article, she wrote: “After the May Fourth Movement, the school gate was opened. Male students could attend meetings at our college and we also could go to their college for activities. Yuanjun and I joined the Russell Research Society and Dewey Research Society in Peking University”. And, female students including Lu Yin and Wang Shiying joined the Literature Research Society.
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Jiang, L. (2018). Education Situation Plagued by Academic Conflicts: Beijing Female Higher Normal College During May Fourth Movement. In: Educational Memory of Chinese Female Intellectuals in Early Twentieth Century. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7770-8_4
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