Abstract
The concept of intellectuals is so controversial that different people give different definitions to it. The broadest one defined by Edward Shils is that intellectuals are those who produce, interpret, teach, and spread knowledge—also those who “consume” or manage a large volume of knowledge.
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Notes
- 1.
The division of intellectual generations and the description of their characteristics mainly make reference to viewpoints of Xu Jilin, Wang Yuechuan, and Chen Pingyuan, among which the division of intellectual generations is from Xu and Wang, while the description of their characteristics is from Chen.
- 2.
There were different opinions on which generation Cai Yuanpei belongs to. Xu Jilin clarified him into the generation of the scholars in late Qing Dynasty, while Wang Yuechuan believed that although Cai belonged to the previous generation with regard to his age, considering his role and influences in May Fourth Movement period, he should be classified into the second generation.
- 3.
Ms. Gan refers to Feng Yuanjun (whose childhood name is Feng Shulan). In 1920s, her representative work Juanshi (a grass’s name, with good vitality) was published, laying a solid foundation for her status in new culture. As she signed the novel with signature of her pen name Ms. Gan, people usually referred her as “Ms. Gan.”
- 4.
Su Luyi refers to Su Xuelin. In 1920s, Su Xuelin used her pen name Lu Yi, publishing a prose Green Sky and novel Thorny Heart. Her works caused a flutter of excitement in the literary world then. Thus, she was also called as “Su Luyi” or “Ms. Lu Yi.”
- 5.
Yi Xing refers to Wang Shiying. She studied at the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language in Beijing Female Normal School from 1917 to 1922. She was in the same class with Feng Yuanjun, Su Xuelin, Cheng Junying, and Lu Yin. During the May Fourth Movement period, she published various literary works in the important new culture magazine Novel Monthly, with the pen name of Yi Xi and Yi Xing. She was one of the early females to join literary research institution and had made great contribution to female new culture in the early periods.
- 6.
Jun Yin refers to Cheng Junying. She studied at the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language in Beijing Female Normal School from 1917 to 1922. During that period, she worked actively in literary composition, with pen names such as Jun Yin and Jun Ying, and published quite a number of literary works in Beijing Female Higher Normal College Literature and Art Journal and Social Welfare · Female Weekly. She also worked for a long time as the editor-in-chief of Social Welfare · Female Weekly, which serves as one of the three important magazines advocating female liberation during the May Fourth Movement period. She made great contribution to female new literature in the early periods.
- 7.
Before 1918, there were only four full-time teachers at the Special Training Major of Chinese Literature and Language in Beijing Female Normal School: Dai Li, Pan Shusheng, Wang Jiaji, and Deng Cuiying; after 1920, there were three full-time teachers at Department of Chinese Literature and Language: Chen Zhongfan, Hu Xiaoshi, and Gu Zhenfu.
- 8.
- 9.
The book indicated that it was after the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) that the life of Chinese female changed substantially. Activities like the emergence of missionary female education, the abolishment of foot-binding tradition, the spreading of activities encouraging women’s education, have laid the foundation for changes in women’s life. Until 1915, the evaluation criterion of women finally changed from “mediocrity is the virtue” to “the good wife and loving mother,” and life circles also transformed into “going to school” from “within the boudoir.” However, it was after the May Fourth Movement that women gained independent personality in which the advocacy of New Youth played a significant role.
- 10.
This book divided women’s educational thoughts since modern China into four categories: the education for good wife and loving mother, for female nationals, for gender equality, and for female education. It further pointed out that Liang Qichao was the originator of the education for good wife and loving mother and his ideas about women’s educational thoughts had an essential effect on the development of modern women’s education. However, the thoughts of education for good wife and loving mother and female nationals were both based on the standpoint of power conservation of the country rather than women’s own rights. The educational idea for the equality between men and women was advocated around the May Fourth Movement period, which aimed at putting men and women in equal status. The idea for female education, which started in the early years of the Republic of China and had been passed on later, put emphasis on women’s own characteristics and their responsibilities for the society, and upheld the idea of carrying out special education for women.
- 11.
The article generalized the development situation of women’s education in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China through a lot of data information, whose emphasis was mainly in the 1920s and also involved several educational situations of Beijing Female Higher Normal College around 1920.
- 12.
In addition, according to study of historians, the time from the founding of the People’s Republic of China to the outbreak of “Cultural Revolution” in 1966 is the first stage of the modern Chinese women’s history study. During this period, as limited by ideological understanding and other reasons, the study of the history of women did not get the attention it deserves from historians, and there were not much research results, and the vision was very limited. Speaking of the old democratic revolution period, people were more interested in the women issues of Taiping Rebellion. Concerning the research on female characters, only some achievements were made in the study of Qiu Jin and some other individual characters. In the new democratic revolution period, the problem of research on female issues was that it’s mainly confined to the range of the history of the Chinese Revolution. Generally speaking, the study of women’s history in this period was still in the start-up phase. Although the National Association of Women established the female movement history data team in 1964, and began to collect historical data of female movement over the country, unfortunately, the agency broken up during the period of “Cultural Revolution,” shortly after its establishment. During the “Cultural Revolution,” academic research was destroyed and distorted, and only a limited number of articles of modern Chinese female history existed, most of which were connected with the movement of “Condemning Lin Biao and Confucian” and “Commenting on Confucianism and Criticizing Legalism,” and were difficult to be counted as academic research in the strict sense. In this context, the research of female history almost came to a standstill.
- 13.
The second volume of the book especially has a section for “women’s education,” including part of the historical materials of the modern women’s education, and provides some valuable clues for us to understand the modern women’s education.
- 14.
Reference: Cheng Junying [1990]. Fallen Flowers Scattering on the Ground. [Manuscript]. [Preserved by Professor Cheng Junying’s daughter Zhang Suyin].
- 15.
On April 25, 2008, there are only five relevant records on the full database of CNKI, if typed “Cheng Junying” into the topic or discourse search line, selected from full database of CNKI (1979–) and excellent master thesis database (1999–). These records are as follows:
Zhu Jieren, Dai Congxi. (2007). Origins of Cheng Junying’s academic thoughts and studies on Classic of Poetry. Literature Heritage, (1): 148–155.
Dai Congxi. (2005). Model of scholars, whose morality shall exist forever: publication of Selected collections in memory of Professor Cheng Junying. East China Normal University Academic Journal (Philosophy and Social Science Section), (2): 119–120.
Lin Xiangzheng. (2004). On Aesthetics in Classic of Poetry—Guan Ju, and discussions with Cheng Junying. Taishan University Academic Journal, (2): 17–21.
Luo Chunying. (2002). “Traveling girl” in poem “Traveling girl on Hanjiang River,” and discussion with Cheng Junying. Jiangxi Education College Academic Journal, (1): 25–26.
Jiang Jianyuan. (1989). Chinese first generation of female professor: Cheng Junying. Journal of Reviews and Researches on Ancient Books (4).
In October 2010, before the revise phase of the book, there are six records searched under the same condition. Apart from the five research thesis or introductory articles, the added one article was Li Xiuqing. (2008). Comments on Cheng Junying’s book Interpretation and analysis of Classic of Poetry. Academic Journal of Xiangfan Vocational Technical Institute, (4): 107–109.
- 16.
On April 25, 2008, there are a total of 191 pieces of records on the full database of CNKI, when typed “Lu Yin” into the topic or discourse search line, selected from full database of CNKI (1979–) and excellent master thesis database (1999–). Among them, 10 pieces are postgraduate dissertations, and the 181 pieces left are research theses and introductory articles.
Among the 10 pieces of postgraduate theses, there are seven of them taking Lu Yin as their special study subject, which are as follows:
Wu Xiuying. (2006). Female images’ emotional expression in Lu Yin’s stories. Beijing: Minzu University of China Literature and Journalism School.
Wu Luchuang. (2007). Solo dance of soul: On Lu Yin’s pursue of love and her literary works. Guangzhou: Jinan University Chinese School.
Wang Ting. (2006). On writing of Lu Yin’s sorrow emotions: Narrating and venting with deep sorriness. Suzhou: Soochow University Chinese School.
Wan Yi. (2006). Blending of knowledge and emotion, theoretical discussions on novel writing—On Lu Yin’s Novel. Nanjing: Nanjing Normal University Education Science School Psychology Department.
Wang Ping. (2007). Always charming no matter with heavy or light makeup: Literary form comparison of Lu Yin’s novels and prose composition. Fuzhou: Fujian Normal University Chinese School.
Zhou Juan. (2004). “Sorrow person who appreciates beauty”: “May Fourth” female writer Lu Yin’s composition model. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia Normal University Chinese School.
Sui Han. (2001). A pioneer wandering on wrong path: Lu Yin’s female awareness and its value. Wuhan: Central China Normal University Literature School.
There are three postgraduate theses taking Lu Yin as the main study case:
Cheng Jiu. (2002). Comparison on novels by Lu Yin and Xiao Hong: Also on development and changes on Chinese modern lyric novels. Wuhu: Anhui Normal University Chinese School.
Chen Mingxiu. (2003). Hard steps toward “freedom”: On mental and emotional conflicts of female intellectuals written by female writers during May Fourth Period. Hefei: Anhui University Chinese Department.
Liu Yanxing. (2007). Narrative theme on the disease of modern female destiny: Individual cases of Lu Yin, Ding Ling and Xiao Hong. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Humanities School.
While in October 2010 when this study was being revised, there are totally 250 pieces of records, searched under the same condition. Among which, there are 14 postgraduate theses, 236 pieces of research theses and introductory works. Apart from the 10 pieces of theses mentioned above, there are four new works, which are:
Wang Shuxia. (2010). Breakthrough, construction and establishment in patriarchy centered society: On writing features of female individualization of Lu Yin’s novels. Chongqing: Sichuan International Studies University.
Meng Fanzhen. (2008). On literary features of Lu Yin’s novels. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia Normal University Chinese School.
Wang Yanhong. (2008). Follow and pursue at crossroads in life: Research on Lu Yin’s novel. Nanchang: Jiangxi Normal University Literature School.
Liu Zhaohua. (2007). From excitement to desperation: Impact of Lu Yin’s novels on recognition and experience of new female destiny. Changsha: Hunan Normal University.
- 17.
On April 25, 2008, there are a total of 55 pieces of records on the full database of CNKI, when typed “Feng Yuanjun” into the topic or discourse search line, selected from full database of CNKI (1979–) and excellent master thesis database (1999–). Most of them are comments on literary creations and literature history, and there are no postgraduate or doctor dissertations. In October 2010, when the book was being revised, there were 69 records, searched under the same way. Among them, there was one new postgraduate dissertation: Fang Hua. 2007. Feng Yuanjun’s comments on novel creation. Fuzhou: Fujian Normal University Chinese School. The 68 other results are memory and introductory articles.
- 18.
For detailed information, please refer to the notes in postscript.
- 19.
Voltaire believes that historical subject is the embodiment of individual life, such as perspective, idea, knowledge, activity, sentiment, emotion feeling, etc., but the essence of life is irrational, so researchers should firstly have a direct experience on life and then grasp the truth of life by experiencing and participating in communication. While Heinrich Rickert stressed that “When historians do research on cultural events, they almost always study spiritual life… So, we used to say, they must be a good psychologists.”
- 20.
When Febvre studied the Philippe II et la Franche-Comté, along with the use of geography and sociology method, he tried to explore the historical panorama of this place by referring to psychological methods. In his later work Martin Luther, A Destiny, he intensively explored the mental outlook and collective psychology of the sixteenth-century German society, created the precedent of psychohistory research with French style. His another work The Problem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century: The Religion of Rabelais was regarded as a classical work in French history of mentalities. For the Royal Touch, written by another pioneer of the Annales School in France Bloch, he used methods of sociology, anthropology, and psychological methods to display the generation, development, and disappear of people’s admiration toward royal rights, by taking examples of how the king cured patients by touching them. With the effect of “king’s touch,” he revealed the general social mentality in that period.
- 21.
In 1990, Sigmund Freud published a book named The Interpretation of Dreams and since then, he had applied some theories about psychoanalysis to the concrete historical figures, historical phenomena, and cultural research. Later, he published successively some works, such as the Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da Vinci in 1910, Totem and Taboo in 1913, Group Psychology and Analysis of the Ego in 1921, Civilization and Its Discontents in 1930 as well as Moses and Monotheism in 1939. As psychoanalysis applied by Freud is much standard, it promotes psychology being really attached to history.
- 22.
This “psychological biography” is similar to the biography for Da Vinci written by Freud. As an important founder of psychohistory, Freud emphasizes the power of the subconscious mind. Because people’s subconscious are mainly formed in the childhood, Freud’s theory mainly focuses on the studies of people’s childhood, in particular, overemphasizing on biological instincts and desires. Though these theories have the function of broaden horizons of history research at the beginning phase of the psychological history, it is still unconvincing when being used for the analysis of the historical figures. Erik Erikson developed Freund’s psychohistory. In his research, in addition to the emphasis on sustainability of people’s self-development after childhood, he also paid special attention to the comprehensive social and cultural factors’ impact on individual psychology.
His masterpieces “Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History, 1958” and Gandhi’s Truth: On the Origin of Militant Nonviolence are considered to be “a model of psychological analysis which has opened up a new way of research on psychohistory in terms of theory and method.”
- 23.
Doubts about psychology being applied to history research: for example, Alain Besancon once criticized some research achievements in psychohistory, saying that “Those are not psychoanalysis at all, but judges of psychohistorians obtained from contrasting with other situations based on their own direct experience.”
- 24.
At the same time, the author also got partly inspired by the research methods of Si Hongchang’s doctoral dissertation (2006).
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Jiang, L. (2018). Introduction. In: Educational Memory of Chinese Female Intellectuals in Early Twentieth Century. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7770-8_1
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