Abstract
Four of the journals mentioned above indicate that four social forces in the primary stage of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression publicized their ideologies rely on journals, including political parties and literary societies.
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Notes
- 1.
“Everyday life” in this chapter shares the same meaning as the term “daily life” in an English-Chinese translation, but these two English phrases are utterly different from each other in meaning to western scholars. For example, Georg Simmel , Walter Benjamin , and Henri Lefebvre inherited a viewpoint that “everyday life” mainly refers to the “urban life”, while “daily life” refers to “country life”, with the differences in combining special experience of real life after essential changes have taken place in a human being’s cognitive knowledge of time and space, while another historian, Ben Highmore believed that the term “everyday life” should be used in particular to represent the life culture existing in the modern situation rather than a general category that can overcome historical differences and is universally correct everywhere [1].
- 2.
Stratification and class are two sociological terms, but the former presents a hierarchy difference developed in a society in forms such as class, power and wealth, which may not be stable or regular as its formation depends on a single social characteristic in most time; but the latter indicates an institutional difference developed based on the hierarchy difference, which is more stable and regular.
- 3.
- 4.
“Editor’s Notes”. Nightingale, 1936, March, 5. (1).
- 5.
The data cited here is from Tao [7]. What is worth noting is that Yao Huiyuan agreed that the “Jiangsu and Zhejiang Consortium” referred to the large Shanghai-based capital group dominated by Jiangsu and Zhejiang capitalists, covering financial capital groups and industrial and commercial capital groups. It was not just bank capital but a capital group where bank capital, private bank capital, commercial capital and industrial capital were combined, interpenetrated and integrated. Because the “Jiangsu and Zhejiang Consortium” was based on the Shanghai dominated banking industry, commercial groups and big firms, most industrial enterprises and main shipping companies, commercial banks and various compradors and brokers, as an important factor, had influence on political and economic life in Shanghai. To avoid being under political control in Shanghai, where “Chinese and foreigners were living together”, the Consortium heads arranged to have most banks and exchange firms in the Zhejiang. Two of the “Three Southern Banks”, including the Chekiang Commercial Bank, Chekiang Industrial Bank and Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank, which were known to the nation, were founded in Zhejiang [8].
- 6.
The so-called “national identity” is a modern concept of gradual “statization” of the “ethnic groups”; that is, abandoning the earlier narrow view earlier of the ethnic groups and reviewing the relationship between the modernity’s product “state” and the complexity of the “ethnic groups” … …the “nation”. Scholars believe that “nationalization” should be expressed as the statization of “ethnic groups”, referring to the process of different ethnic groups being integrated into a united “great ethnic group” …nation. Its essence is to realize the transition from ethnic identity to national identity… Nationalization does not reject characteristics of individual ethnic groups, but it attaches more importance to the commonality that the ethnic groups depend on each other and co-exist with common prosperity in the same political and regional unit… Nationalization is a process to continuously advance power, national unity, political and cultural homogenization… Ethnic identity is the starting point of national identity, which is an important part of the national interest, and in a sense, the key to national existence and continuation. The transmutation course from ethnic identity to national identity is also the nationalization process of ethnic groups [10].
- 7.
O.P. Trautmann (1877–1950), German diplomat, served as Assistant to the German Ambassador to Japan and was the German Ambassador to China in 1935.
- 8.
Cathay originally denotes an old minority in ancient China and was a disparaging name that the Britons used to call North China in former times. In English dictionaries, the word has the meaning of “liar”, and later it was gradually used in old English to refer to China in general, “but what is worth noting is that foreign observers—such as Marco—do not understand this basic Chinese community. For Europeans in the 14th century, Cathay—a term derived from the name of Qidan race, referring to ‘North China’—a different nation from that called Manzi (South China). Until the ‘Age of Discovery’ in the 16th century, Europeans began to know Cathay and Manzi were integral parts of what we now call China, a larger community” [12].
- 9.
Agenda-setting theory is a mass media function theory developed by American communication experts Maxwell E. Mccombs and Donald Shaw in 1972. They believed mass communication, including the press and television, often cannot decide people’s specific opinions of an event or view, but they can effectively determine what facts and views people should focus on as well as the order of their conversation by providing proper information and arranging relevant topics. Mass media may not be able to influence the way people think but can influence what people think. The study of “how mass communication becomes involved in the audience’s everyday life” in this chapter can be discussed and concluded by introducing the “agenda-setting theory”.
- 10.
The four questions described here evolved from four core questions raised by Maxwell, E and McCombs on the “agenda-setting theory”: first, what are the conditions of producing public opinion effects? Second, what is the power to create “media agenda”? Third, what are the specific factors influencing the information presented by these journals during dissemination? Fourth, what are the results when the media agenda influences the public agenda?
- 11.
For example, Pien Chih-lin did not hesitate to retrieve his paper and give it to Ba Jin ’s Pingming Publishing Company at the cost of falling out with the General Manager; Jiao Juyin said he would “do his small part to help ‘Pingming’ by selecting and contributing better works later” and sent an advice letter to Ba Jin, saying: “‘Xinhua’ distribution network is too large and ‘Pingming’ may be affected a little, but their translation is not good, so nothing matters… This should be up to critics and readers” [17].
- 12.
During the “Cultural Revolution”, Ba Jin was found guilty of “operating a publishing house”, which proves that Ba Jin had grown into a prominent publisher during the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. “He first acted as editor-in-chief and General Manager of Culture Life Press, and then after the liberation, he was ambitious and founded the Pingming Publishing Company with the Li family’s branch with his two younger brothers. Ba Jin’s publishing house sold the spiritual opium of the people and aggressively peddled European bourgeois classical literary works created in the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as works of bourgeois literary critics such as Herzen and Nikolai Chernyshevsky in Russia to compete for publishing positions with the CCP [18].
- 13.
In 1944, President of United States Franklin Roosevelt delivered his State of the Union address, where he mentioned “four freedoms” that constituted the spiritual resonance of “contemporary liberalism”, known as the “second Bill of Rights of the States”. Later, in 1946, American Ambassador to China John Leighton Stuart delivered his political speech on “Double-10 National Day” in China [19], and the modern liberalism representing American political ideology (“universal values”) had a huge impact in post-war China. The liberalism that swept across China and even the world after WWII also had a huge impact on Chinese intellectuals and literature journals at the time. There were not many journals and magazine founded before and after the end of the war of resistance in China, but of these few publications, most were based on liberal intellectuals such as Observation and Times and Articles in Shanghai, The Century Critic in Nanking, and New Freedom in Peking. Under the influence of the new liberalism thought, thinkers began to debate major issues, such as “What kind of social and cultural order should be established in China after the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression?”.
- 14.
Indexes used to measure the degree to which journals interfere with the everyday lives of the audience are different in different perspectives, but these five indexes generally cover all points of view in academic circles at present. Shengmin [21], Bairong [22], Chen [23], Department of Journalism, Ming Chuan University [24] and other works.
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Han, S.H. (2018). Conclusion: Supra Class, National Salvation and Humanism. In: Literature Journals in the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression in China (1931-1938). Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6448-7_6
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