Advertisement

Similarities and Differences in Neurobiology

Chapter
First Online:
Part of the Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology book series (AEMB, volume 1010)

Abstract

Substance addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences. Non-substance addiction is defined recently that people may compulsively engage in an activity despite any negative consequences to their lives. Despite differences with respect to their addictive object, substance addiction and non-substance addiction may share similarities with respect to biological, epidemiological, clinical, genetic and other features. Here we review the similarities and differences in neurobiology between these two addictions with a focus on dopamine, serotonin, opioid, glutamate and norepinephrine systems. Studies suggest the involvement of all these systems in both substance addiction and non-substance addiction while differences may exist with respect to their contributions.

Keywords

Substance addiction Non-substance addiction Neurobiology 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Amato L, Minozzi S, Pani PP, Davoli M (2007) Antipsychotic medications for cocaine dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3:CD006306Google Scholar
  2. 2.
    Baker DA, McFarland K, Lake RW, Shen H, Toda S, Kalivas PW (2003) N-acetyl cysteine-induced blockade of cocaine-induced reinstatement. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1003:349–351PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Barbano MF, Cador M (2007) Opioids for hedonic experience and dopamine to get ready for it. Psychopharmacology 191(3):497–506PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Boileau I, Payer D, Chugani B, Lobo D, Behzadi A, Rusjan PM, Houle S, Wilson AA, Warsh J, Kish SJ, Zack M (2013) The D2/3 dopamine receptor in pathological gambling: a positron emission tomography study with [11C]-(+)-propyl-hexahydro-naphtho-oxazin and [11C]raclopride. Addiction 108(5):953–963PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Boileau I, Payer D, Chugani B, Lobo DS, Houle S, Wilson AA, Warsh J, Kish SJ, Zack M (2014) In vivo evidence for greater amphetamine-induced dopamine release in pathological gambling: a positron emission tomography study with [(11)C]-(+)-PHNO. Mol Psychiatry 19(12):1305–1313PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Brewer JA, Potenza MN (2008) The neurobiology and genetics of impulse control disorders: relationships to drug addictions. Biochem Pharmacol 75(1):63–75PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Bullock SA, Potenza MN (2012) Pathological gambling: neuropsychopharmacology and treatment. Curr Psychopharmacol 1(1):67–85Google Scholar
  8. 8.
    Campbell-Meiklejohn D, Wakeley J, Herbert V, Cook J, Scollo P, Ray MK, Selvaraj S, Passingham RE, Cowen P, Rogers RD (2011) Serotonin and dopamine play complementary roles in gambling to recover losses. Neuropsychopharmacology 36(2):402–410PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Carroll KM, Nich C, Ball SA, McCance E, Rounsavile BJ (1998) Treatment of cocaine and alcohol dependence with psychotherapy and disulfiram. Addiction 93(5):713–727PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Carroll KM, Fenton LR, Ball SA, Nich C, Frankforter TL, Shi J, Rounsaville BJ (2004) Efficacy of disulfiram and cognitive behavior therapy in cocaine-dependent outpatients: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 61(3):264–272PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Clark L, Stokes PR, Wu K, Michalczuk R, Benecke A, Watson BJ, Egerton A, Piccini P, Nutt DJ, Bowden-Jones H, Lingford-Hughes AR (2012) Striatal dopamine D(2)/D(3) receptor binding in pathological gambling is correlated with mood-related impulsivity. NeuroImage 63(1):40–46PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Clark L, Averbeck B, Payer D, Sescousse G, Winstanley CA, Xue G (2013) Pathological choice: the neuroscience of gambling and gambling addiction. J Neurosci 33(45):17617–17623PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Crean J, Richards JB, de Wit H (2002) Effect of tryptophan depletion on impulsive behavior in men with or without a family history of alcoholism. Behav Brain Res 136(2):349–357PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    De Vries TJ, Schoffelmeer AN, Binnekade R, Raaso H, Vanderschuren LJ (2002) Relapse to cocaine- and heroin-seeking behavior mediated by dopamine D2 receptors is time-dependent and associated with behavioral sensitization. Neuropsychopharmacology 26(1):18–26PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Drouin C, Darracq L, Trovero F, Blanc G, Glowinski J, Cotecchia S, Tassin JP (2002) Alpha1b-adrenergic receptors control locomotor and rewarding effects of psychostimulants and opiates. J Neurosci 22(7):2873–2884PubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Erb S, Hitchcott PK, Rajabi H, Mueller D, Shaham Y, Stewart J (2000) Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists block stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. Neuropsychopharmacology 23(2):138–150PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Fils-Aime ML, Eckardt MJ, George DT, Brown GL, Mefford I, Linnoila M (1996) Early-onset alcoholics have lower cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid levels than late-onset alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53(3):211–216PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Fong T, Kalechstein A, Bernhard B, Rosenthal R, Rugle L (2008) A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of olanzapine for the treatment of video poker pathological gamblers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 89(3):298–303PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    George TP, Chawarski MC, Pakes J, Carroll KM, Kosten TR, Schottenfeld RS (2000) Disulfiram versus placebo for cocaine dependence in buprenorphine-maintained subjects: a preliminary trial. Biol Psychiatry 47(12):1080–1086PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND (2002) Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 159(10):1642–1652PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Goudriaan AE, Oosterlaan J, de Beurs E, Van den Brink W (2004) Pathological gambling: a comprehensive review of biobehavioral findings. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 28(2):123–141PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Grant JE, Kim SW, Potenza MN, Blanco C, Ibanez A, Stevens L, Hektner JM, Zaninelli R (2003) Paroxetine treatment of pathological gambling: a multi-centre randomized controlled trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 18(4):243–249PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Grant JE, Potenza MN, Hollander E, Cunningham-Williams R, Nurminen T, Smits G, Kallio A (2006) Multicenter investigation of the opioid antagonist nalmefene in the treatment of pathological gambling. Am J Psychiatry 163(2):303–312PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Grant JE, Kim SW, Odlaug BL (2007) N-acetyl cysteine, a glutamate-modulating agent, in the treatment of pathological gambling: a pilot study. Biol Psychiatry 62(6):652–657PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Grant JE, Kim SW, Hollander E, Potenza MN (2008) Predicting response to opiate antagonists and placebo in the treatment of pathological gambling. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 200(4):521–527CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Grant JE, Kim SW, Hartman BK (2008a) A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the opiate antagonist naltrexone in the treatment of pathological gambling urges. J Clin Psychiatry 69(5):783–789PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Grant JE, Chamberlain SR, Odlaug BL, Potenza MN, Kim SW (2010) Memantine shows promise in reducing gambling severity and cognitive inflexibility in pathological gambling: a pilot study. Psychopharmacology 212(4):603–612PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Grant JE, Odlaug BL, Potenza MN, Hollander E, Kim SW (2010) Nalmefene in the treatment of pathological gambling: multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Psychiatry 197(4):330–331PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Gray KM, Watson NL, Carpenter MJ, Larowe SD (2010) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in young marijuana users: an open-label pilot study. Am J Addict 19(2):187–189PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Guardia J, Segura L, Gonzalvo B, Iglesias L, Roncero C, Cardus M, Casas M (2004) A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of olanzapine in the treatment of alcohol-dependence disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 28(5):736–745PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Heinz A, Siessmeier T, Wrase J, Hermann D, Klein S, Grusser SM, Flor H, Braus DF, Buchholz HG, Grunder G, Schreckenberger M, Smolka MN, Rosch F, Mann K, Bartenstein P (2004) Correlation between dopamine D(2) receptors in the ventral striatum and central processing of alcohol cues and craving. Am J Psychiatry 161(10):1783–1789PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Herz A (1997) Endogenous opioid systems and alcohol addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 129(2):99–111CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Hietala J, West C, Syvalahti E, Nagren K, Lehikoinen P, Sonninen P, Ruotsalainen U (1994) Striatal D2 dopamine receptor binding characteristics in vivo in patients with alcohol dependence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 116(3):285–290CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Highfield D, Yap J, Grimm JW, Shalev U, Shaham Y (2001) Repeated lofexidine treatment attenuates stress-induced, but not drug cues-induced reinstatement of a heroin-cocaine mixture (speedball) seeking in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 25(3):320–331PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Hollander E, DeCaria CM, Finkell JN, Begaz T, Wong CM, Cartwright C (2000) A randomized double-blind fluvoxamine/placebo crossover trial in pathologic gambling. Biol Psychiatry 47(9):813–817PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Hu J, Henry S, Gallezot JD, Ropchan J, Neumaier JF, Potenza MN, Sinha R, Krystal JH, Huang Y, Ding YS, Carson RE, Neumeister A (2010) Serotonin 1B receptor imaging in alcohol dependence. Biol Psychiatry 67(9):800–803PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Jobes ML, Ghitza UE, Epstein DH, Phillips KA, Heishman SJ, Preston KL (2011) Clonidine blocks stress-induced craving in cocaine users. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 218(1):83–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Kalivas PW (2001) Drug addiction: to the cortex and beyond! Am J Psychiatry 158(3):349–350PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Kalivas PW (2009) The glutamate homeostasis hypothesis of addiction. Nat Rev Neurosci 10(8):561–572PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Kalivas PW, Volkow ND (2011) New medications for drug addiction hiding in glutamatergic neuroplasticity. Mol Psychiatry 16(10):974–986PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Khroyan TV, Barrett-Larimore RL, Rowlett JK, Spealman RD (2000) Dopamine D1- and D2-like receptor mechanisms in relapse to cocaine-seeking behavior: effects of selective antagonists and agonists. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 294(2):680–687PubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Kim SW, Grant JE, Adson DE, Shin YC (2001) Double-blind naltrexone and placebo comparison study in the treatment of pathological gambling. Biol Psychiatry 49(11):914–921PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Kim SW, Grant JE, Adson DE, Shin YC, Zaninelli R (2002) A double-blind placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of paroxetine in the treatment of pathological gambling. J Clin Psychiatry 63(6):501–507PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Knackstedt LA, LaRowe S, Mardikian P, Malcolm R, Upadhyaya H, Hedden S, Markou A, Kalivas PW (2009) The role of cystine-glutamate exchange in nicotine dependence in rats and humans. Biol Psychiatry 65(10):841–845PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Koob GF, Le Moal M (1997) Drug abuse: hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science 278(5335):52–58PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Krishnan-Sarin S, Krystal JH, Shi J, Pittman B, O'Malley SS (2007) Family history of alcoholism influences naltrexone-induced reduction in alcohol drinking. Biol Psychiatry 62(6):694–697PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Krupitsky EM, Neznanova O, Masalov D, Burakov AM, Didenko T, Romanova T, Tsoy M, Bespalov A, Slavina TY, Grinenko AA, Petrakis IL, Pittman B, Gueorguieva R, Zvartau EE, Krystal JH (2007) Effect of memantine on cue-induced alcohol craving in recovering alcohol-dependent patients. Am J Psychiatry 164(3):519–523PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Krystal JH, Webb E, Cooney N, Kranzler HR, Charney DS (1994) Specificity of ethanollike effects elicited by serotonergic and noradrenergic mechanisms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51(11):898–911PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Lee B, London ED, Poldrack RA, Farahi J, Nacca A, Monterosso JR, Mumford JA, Bokarius AV, Dahlbom M, Mukherjee J, Bilder RM, Brody AL, Mandelkern MA (2009) Striatal dopamine d2/d3 receptor availability is reduced in methamphetamine dependence and is linked to impulsivity. J Neurosci 29(47):14734–14740PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    LeMarquand DG, Benkelfat C, Pihl RO, Palmour RM, Young SN (1999) Behavioral disinhibition induced by tryptophan depletion in nonalcoholic young men with multigenerational family histories of paternal alcoholism. Am J Psychiatry 156(11):1771–1779PubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Leri F, Flores J, Rodaros D, Stewart J (2002) Blockade of stress-induced but not cocaine-induced reinstatement by infusion of noradrenergic antagonists into the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis or the central nucleus of the amygdala. J Neurosci 22(13):5713–5718PubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Lobo DS, Kennedy JL (2009) Genetic aspects of pathological gambling: a complex disorder with shared genetic vulnerabilities. Addiction 104(9):1454–1465PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Lutz PE, Kieffer BL (2013) The multiple facets of opioid receptor function: implications for addiction. Curr Opin Neurobiol 23(4):473–479PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Marazziti D, Golia F, Picchetti M, Pioli E, Mannari P, Lenzi F, Conversano C, Carmassi C, Catena Dell’Osso M, Consoli G, Baroni S, Giannaccini G, Zanda G, Dell’Osso L (2008) Decreased density of the platelet serotonin transporter in pathological gamblers. Neuropsychobiology 57(1–2):38–43PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Martinez D, Gil R, Slifstein M, Hwang DR, Huang Y, Perez A, Kegeles L, Talbot P, Evans S, Krystal J, Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A (2005) Alcohol dependence is associated with blunted dopamine transmission in the ventral striatum. Biol Psychiatry 58(10):779–786PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Martinez D, Narendran R, Foltin RW, Slifstein M, Hwang DR, Broft A, Huang Y, Cooper TB, Fischman MW, Kleber HD, Laruelle M (2007) Amphetamine-induced dopamine release: markedly blunted in cocaine dependence and predictive of the choice to self-administer cocaine. Am J Psychiatry 164(4):622–629PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Martinez D, Greene K, Broft A, Kumar D, Liu F, Narendran R, Slifstein M, Van Heertum R, Kleber HD (2009) Lower level of endogenous dopamine in patients with cocaine dependence: findings from PET imaging of D(2)/D(3) receptors following acute dopamine depletion. Am J Psychiatry 166(10):1170–1177PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Martinez D, Carpenter KM, Liu F, Slifstein M, Broft A, Friedman AC, Kumar D, Van Heertum R, Kleber HD, Nunes E (2011) Imaging dopamine transmission in cocaine dependence: link between neurochemistry and response to treatment. Am J Psychiatry 168(6):634–641PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Martinez D, Saccone PA, Liu F, Slifstein M, Orlowska D, Grassetti A, Cook S, Broft A, Van Heertum R, Comer SD (2012) Deficits in dopamine D(2) receptors and presynaptic dopamine in heroin dependence: commonalities and differences with other types of addiction. Biol Psychiatry 71(3):192–198PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    McElroy SL, Nelson EB, Welge JA, Kaehler L, Keck PE Jr (2008) Olanzapine in the treatment of pathological gambling: a negative randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 69(3):433–440PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Monti PM, Rohsenow DJ, Hutchison KE, Swift RM, Mueller TI, Colby SM, Brown RA, Gulliver SB, Gordon A, Abrams DB (1999) Naltrexone’s effect on cue-elicited craving among alcoholics in treatment. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 23(8):1386–1394PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Moore RY, Bloom FE (1979) Central catecholamine neuron systems: anatomy and physiology of the norepinephrine and epinephrine systems. Annu Rev Neurosci 2:113–168PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Narendran R, Martinez D, Mason NS, Lopresti BJ, Himes ML, Chen CM, May MA, Price JC, Mathis CA, Frankle WG (2011) Imaging of dopamine D2/3 agonist binding in cocaine dependence: a [11C]NPA positron emission tomography study. Synapse 65(12):1344–1349PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Niciu MJ, Arias AJ (2013) Targeted opioid receptor antagonists in the treatment of alcohol use disorders. CNS Drugs 27(10):777–787PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Nordin C, Eklundh T (1999) Altered CSF 5-HIAA disposition in pathologic male gamblers. CNS Spectr 4(12):25–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Nordin C, Gupta RC, Sjodin I (2007) Cerebrospinal fluid amino acids in pathological gamblers and healthy controls. Neuropsychobiology 56(2–3):152–158PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Nussbaum D, Honarmand K, Govoni R, Kalahani-Bargis M, Bass S, Ni X, Laforge K, Burden A, Romero K, Basarke S, Courbasson C, Deamond W (2011) An eight component decision-making model for problem gambling: a systems approach to stimulate integrative research. J Gambl Stud 27(4):523–563PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Olsen CM (2011) Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions. Neuropharmacology 61(7):1109–1122PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Padgett DA, Glaser R (2003) How stress influences the immune response. Trends Immunol 24(8):444–448PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Palfai T, Davidson D, Swift R (1999) Influence of naltrexone on cue-elicited craving among hazardous drinkers: the moderational role of positive outcome expectancies. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 7(3):266–273PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Pallanti S, Bernardi S, Quercioli L, DeCaria C, Hollander E (2006) Serotonin dysfunction in pathological gamblers: increased prolactin response to oral m-CPP versus placebo. CNS Spectr 11(12):956–964PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Pallanti S, Bernardi S, Allen A, Chaplin W, Watner D, DeCaria CM, Hollander E (2010) Noradrenergic function in pathological gambling: blunted growth hormone response to clonidine. J Psychopharmacol 24(6):847–853PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Pecina S, Smith KS, Berridge KC (2006) Hedonic hot spots in the brain. Neuroscientist 12(6):500–511PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Perry CJ, McNally GP (2013) A role for the ventral pallidum in context-induced and primed reinstatement of alcohol seeking. Eur J Neurosci 38(5):2762–2773PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Petrovic P, Pleger B, Seymour B, Kloppel S, De Martino B, Critchley H, Dolan RJ (2008) Blocking central opiate function modulates hedonic impact and anterior cingulate response to rewards and losses. J Neurosci 28(42):10509–10516PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Potenza MN (2008) Review. The neurobiology of pathological gambling and drug addiction: an overview and new findings. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 363(1507):3181–3189CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Potenza MN, Steinberg MA, McLaughlin SD, Wu R, Rounsaville BJ, O’Malley SS (2001) Gender-related differences in the characteristics of problem gamblers using a gambling helpline. Am J Psychiatry 158(9):1500–1505PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Potenza MN, Hong KI, Lacadie CM, Fulbright RK, Tuit KL, Sinha R (2012) Neural correlates of stress-induced and cue-induced drug craving: influences of sex and cocaine dependence. Am J Psychiatry 169(4):406–414PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Potenza MN, Walderhaug E, Henry S, Gallezot JD, Planeta-Wilson B, Ropchan J, Neumeister A (2013) Serotonin 1B receptor imaging in pathological gambling. World J Biol Psychiatry 14(2):139–145PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Ratsma JE, Van Der Stelt O, Gunning WB (2002) Neurochemical markers of alcoholism vulnerability in humans. Alcohol Alcohol 37(6):522–533PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Ritz MC, Lamb RJ, Goldberg SR, Kuhar MJ (1987) Cocaine receptors on dopamine transporters are related to self-administration of cocaine. Science 237(4819):1219–1223PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Rosner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, Vecchi S, Srisurapanont M, Soyka M (2010) Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 12:Cd001867Google Scholar
  83. 83.
    Roy A, DeJong J, Ferraro T, Adinoff B, Gold P, Rubinow D, Linnoila M (1989) CSF GABA and neuropeptides in pathological gamblers and normal controls. Psychiatry Res 30(2):137–144PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Saiz-Ruiz J, Blanco C, Ibanez A, Masramon X, Gomez MM, Madrigal M, Diez T (2005) Sertraline treatment of pathological gambling: a pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry 66(1):28–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Shaham Y, Erb S, Stewart J (2000) Stress-induced relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking in rats: a review. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 33(1):13–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Shinohara K, Yanagisawa A, Kagota Y, Gomi A, Nemoto K, Moriya E, Furusawa E, Furuya K, Terasawa K (1999) Physiological changes in Pachinko players; beta-endorphin, catecholamines, immune system substances and heart rate. Appl Hum Sci 18(2):37–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Simmons D, Self DW (2009) Role of mu- and delta-opioid receptors in the nucleus accumbens in cocaine-seeking behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 34(8):1946–1957PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Sinha R, Kimmerling A, Doebrick C, Kosten TR (2007) Effects of lofexidine on stress-induced and cue-induced opioid craving and opioid abstinence rates: preliminary findings. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 190(4):569–574CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Sofuoglu M, Sewell RA (2009) Norepinephrine and stimulant addiction. Addict Biol 14(2):119–129PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Spanagel R, Herz A, Shippenberg TS (1992) Opposing tonically active endogenous opioid systems modulate the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89(6):2046–2050PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Tang XC, McFarland K, Cagle S, Kalivas PW (2005) Cocaine-induced reinstatement requires endogenous stimulation of mu-opioid receptors in the ventral pallidum. J Neurosci 25(18):4512–4520PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Torrens M, Fonseca F, Mateu G, Farre M (2005) Efficacy of antidepressants in substance use disorders with and without comorbid depression. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 78(1):1–22PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Tremblay AM, Desmond RC, Poulos CX, Zack M (2011) Haloperidol modifies instrumental aspects of slot machine gambling in pathological gamblers and healthy controls. Addict Biol 16(3):467–484PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Urban NB, Kegeles LS, Slifstein M, Xu X, Martinez D, Sakr E, Castillo F, Moadel T, O'Malley SS, Krystal JH, Abi-Dargham A (2010) Sex differences in striatal dopamine release in young adults after oral alcohol challenge: a positron emission tomography imaging study with [(1)(1)C]raclopride. Biol Psychiatry 68(8):689–696PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    van Wageningen H, Jorgensen HA, Specht K, Hugdahl K (2010) A 1H-MR spectroscopy study of changes in glutamate and glutamine (Glx) concentrations in frontal spectra after administration of memantine. Cereb Cortex 20(4):798–803PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Vescovi PP, Coiro V (1997) Persistence of defective serotonergic and GABAergic controls of growth hormone secretion in long-term abstinent alcoholics. Alcohol Alcohol 32(1):85–90PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wolf AP, Schlyer D, Shiue CY, Alpert R, Dewey SL, Logan J, Bendriem B, Christman D et al (1990) Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on postsynaptic dopamine receptors. Am J Psychiatry 147(6):719–724PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Hitzemann R, Logan J, Schlyer DJ, Dewey SL, Wolf AP (1993) Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse 14(2):169–177PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Logan J, Hitzemann R, Ding YS, Pappas N, Shea C, Piscani K (1996) Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20(9):1594–1598PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Logan J, Gatley SJ, Hitzemann R, Chen AD, Dewey SL, Pappas N (1997) Decreased striatal dopaminergic responsiveness in detoxified cocaine-dependent subjects. Nature 386(6627):830–833PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Ding YS, Sedler M, Logan J, Franceschi D, Gatley J, Hitzemann R, Gifford A, Wong C, Pappas N (2001) Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 158(12):2015–2021PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Ma Y, Fowler JS, Wong C, Ding YS, Hitzemann R, Swanson JM, Kalivas P (2005) Activation of orbital and medial prefrontal cortex by methylphenidate in cocaine-addicted subjects but not in controls: relevance to addiction. J Neurosci 25(15):3932–3939PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Begleiter H, Porjesz B, Fowler JS, Telang F, Wong C, Ma Y, Logan J, Goldstein R, Alexoff D, Thanos PK (2006) High levels of dopamine D2 receptors in unaffected members of alcoholic families: possible protective factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63(9):999–1008PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Telang F, Fowler JS, Logan J, Jayne M, Ma Y, Pradhan K, Wong C (2007) Profound decreases in dopamine release in striatum in detoxified alcoholics: possible orbitofrontal involvement. J Neurosci 27(46):12700–12706PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Tomasi D, Telang F (2011) Addiction: beyond dopamine reward circuitry. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(37):15037–15042PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Wang GJ, Smith L, Volkow ND, Telang F, Logan J, Tomasi D, Wong CT, Hoffman W, Jayne M, Alia-Klein N, Thanos P, Fowler JS (2012) Decreased dopamine activity predicts relapse in methamphetamine abusers. Mol Psychiatry 17(9):918–925PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Weinshenker D, Schroeder JP (2007) There and back again: a tale of norepinephrine and drug addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 32(7):1433–1451PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Welberg L (2011) Addiction: from mechanisms to treatment. Nat Rev Neurosci 12(11):621PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Zack M, Poulos CX (2004) Amphetamine primes motivation to gamble and gambling-related semantic networks in problem gamblers. Neuropsychopharmacology 29(1):195–207PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Zhou W, Kalivas PW (2008) N-acetylcysteine reduces extinction responding and induces enduring reductions in cue- and heroin-induced drug-seeking. Biol Psychiatry 63(3):338–340PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of PharmacologySchool of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science CenterBeijingChina
  2. 2.National Institute on Drug DependencePeking UniversityBeijingChina
  3. 3.Institute of Mental Health/Peking University Sixth Hospital and National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & Key Laboratory of Mental HealthPeking UniversityBeijingChina

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter