Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Photocarcinogenesis and Molecular Mechanism

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Photocarcinogenesis & Photoprotection

Abstract

Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) reaches to the earth surface through sunlight, and every living organism gets exposed to it multiple times during their life span. Excessive exposure to UVR has adverse effects and could lead to skin aging, eye damage, and skin cancer. UVA and UVB components of UVR, both can penetrate the skin and have the potential of causing skin damage. UVR exposure causes DNA damage leading to somatic mutations either directly or through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). UVR plays a role in initiation, promotion, and progression of cancer via affecting the oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, inflammation, immunosuppression, signaling pathways, and mitochondrial DNA damage. Although exposure to sunlight is almost unavoidable, appropriate precautions should be taken while outside either for pleasure or work. This chapter comprehensively summarizes the aspects about photocarcinogenesis, factors and molecular mechanisms involved in photo-induced skin cancer, treatments available, and photoprotection.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Koh HK, Geller AC, Miller DR, Grossbart TA, Lew RA (1996) Prevention and early detection strategies for melanoma and skin cancer. Current status. Arch Dermatol 132(4):436–443

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Rogers HW, Weinstock MA, Feldman SR, Coldiron BM (2015) Incidence estimate of nonmelanoma skin cancer (keratinocyte carcinomas) in the U.S. population, 2012. JAMA Dermatol 151(10):1081–1086

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Bleyer AOLM, Barr R, Ries LAG (eds) (2006) Cancer epidemiology in older adolescents and young adults 15 to 29 years of age, including SEER incidence and survival: 1975–2000. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda NIH Pub. No. 06

    Google Scholar 

  4. Whiteman DC, Whiteman CA, Green AC (2001) Childhood sun exposure as a risk factor for melanoma: a systematic review of epidemiologic studies. Cancer Causes Control 12(1):69–82

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Boniol M, Autier P, Boyle P, Gandini S (2012) Cutaneous melanoma attributable to sunbed use: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 345:e4757

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Garibyan L, Fisher DE (2010) How sunlight causes melanoma. Curr Oncol Rep 12(5):319–326

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Zaidi MR, Davis S, Noonan FP, Graff-Cherry C, Hawley TS, Walker RL et al (2011) Interferon-gamma links ultraviolet radiation to melanomagenesis in mice. Nature 469(7331):548–553

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Bald T, Quast T, Landsberg J, Rogava M, Glodde N, Lopez-Ramos D et al (2014) Ultraviolet-radiation-induced inflammation promotes angiotropism and metastasis in melanoma. Nature 507(7490):109–113

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Marnett LJ (2000) Oxyradicals and DNA damage. Carcinogenesis 21(3):361–370

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Sung SJS, Kormanik PP, Black CC (1993) Vascular cambial sucrose metabolism and growth in loblolly-pine (Pinus-Taeda L) in relation to transplanting stress. Tree Physiol 12(3):243–258

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Perchellet JP, Percheliet E, Gali HU et al (1995) Oxidant stress and multistage skin carcinogenesis. In: Mukhtar H (ed) Skin cancer: mechanisms and human relevance. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 145–180

    Google Scholar 

  12. Taffe BG, Kensler T (1989) Free radicals and signal transduction in tumor promotion. In: Colburn NH (ed) Genes and signal transduction in multistage carcinogenesis. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 391–397

    Google Scholar 

  13. Quintanilla M, Brown K, Ramsden M, Balmain A (1986) Carcinogen-specific mutation and amplification of Ha-ras during mouse skin carcinogenesis. Nature 322(6074):78–80

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Ioannides C, Parke DV (1987) The cytochromes P-448 – a unique family of enzymes involved in chemical toxicity and carcinogenesis. Biochem Pharmacol 36(24):4197–4207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Halliwell B (1999) Oxygen and nitrogen are pro-carcinogens. Damage to DNA by reactive oxygen, chlorine and nitrogen species: measurement, mechanism and the effects of nutrition. Mutat Res 443(1–2):37–52

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Ahsan H, Ali A, Ali R (2003) Oxygen free radicals and systemic autoimmunity. Clin Exp Immunol 131(3):398–404

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Knight JA (1995) Diseases related to oxygen-derived free radicals. Ann Clin Lab Sci 25(2):111–121

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Waris G, Alam K (1998) Attenuated antigenicity of ribonucleoproteins modified by reactive oxygen species. Biochem Mol Biol Int 45(1):33–45

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Ames BN (1983) Dietary carcinogens and anticarcinogens. Oxygen radicals and degenerative diseases. Science 221(4617):1256–1264

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Higinbotham KG, Rice JM, Diwan BA, Kasprzak KS, Reed CD, Perantoni AO (1992) GGT to GTT transversions in codon 12 of the K-ras oncogene in rat renal sarcomas induced with nickel subsulfide or nickel subsulfide/iron are consistent with oxidative damage to DNA. Cancer Res 52(17):4747–4751

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Du MQ, Carmichael PL, Phillips DH (1994) Induction of activating mutations in the human c-Ha-ras-1 proto-oncogene by oxygen free radicals. Mol Carcinog 11(3):170–175

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Denissenko MF, Venkatachalam S, Ma YH, Wani AA (1996) Site-specific induction and repair of benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide DNA damage in human H-ras protooncogene as revealed by restriction cleavage inhibition. Mutat Res 363(1):27–42

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Lunec J, Holloway KA, Cooke MS, Faux S, Griffiths HR, Evans MD (2002) Urinary 8-oxo-2′-deoxyguanosine: redox regulation of DNA repair in vivo? Free Radic Biol Med 33(7):875–885

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Ames BN, Shigenaga MK (1993) Gold LS. DNA lesions, inducible DNA repair, and cell division: three key factors in mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 101(Suppl 5):35–44

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Moller P, Wallin H (1998) Adduct formation, mutagenesis and nucleotide excision repair of DNA damage produced by reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation product. Mutat Res 410(3):271–290

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kramer M, Stein B, Mai S, Kunz E, Konig H, Loferer H et al (1990) Radiation-induced activation of transcription factors in mammalian cells. Radiat Environ Biophys 29(4):303–313

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Daya-Grosjean L, Dumaz N, Sarasin A (1995) The specificity of p53 mutation spectra in sunlight induced human cancers. J Photochem Photobiol B 28(2):115–124

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Hussein MR, Wood GS (2002) Molecular aspects of melanocytic dysplastic nevi. J Mol Diagn 4(2):71–80

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Hussein MR, Haemel AK (2003) Wood GS. p53-related pathways and the molecular pathogenesis of melanoma. Eur J Cancer Prev 12(2):93–100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Serrano M, Hannon GJ, Beach D (1993) A new regulatory motif in cell-cycle control causing specific inhibition of cyclin D/CDK4. Nature 366(6456):704–707

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Stone S, Jiang P, Dayananth P, Tavtigian SV, Katcher H, Parry D et al (1995) Complex structure and regulation of the P16 (MTS1) locus. Cancer Res 55(14):2988–2994

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Piepkorn M (2000) Melanoma genetics: an update with focus on the CDKN2A(p16)/ARF tumor suppressors. J Am Acad Dermatol 42(5 Pt 1):705–722 quiz 23–6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Zhang H, Rosdahl I (2004) Deletion in p16INK4a and loss of p16 expression in human skin primary and metastatic melanoma cells. Int J Oncol 24(2):331–335

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Chung JH, Han JH, Hwang EJ, Seo JY, Cho KH, Kim KH et al (2003) Dual mechanisms of green tea extract (EGCG)-induced cell survival in human epidermal keratinocytes. FASEB J 17(13):1913–1915

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. D’Errico M, Calcagnile A, Canzona F, Didona B, Posteraro P, Cavalieri R et al (2000) UV mutation signature in tumor suppressor genes involved in skin carcinogenesis in xeroderma pigmentosum patients. Oncogene 19(3):463–467

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Daya-Grosjean L, Sarasin A (2000) UV-specific mutations of the human patched gene in basal cell carcinomas from normal individuals and xeroderma pigmentosum patients. Mutat Res 450(1–2):193–199

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. de Gruijl FR, van Kranen HJ, Mullenders LH (2001) UV-induced DNA damage, repair, mutations and oncogenic pathways in skin cancer. J Photochem Photobiol B 63(1–3):19–27

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Zhang H, Ping XL, Lee PK, Wu XL, Yao YJ, Zhang MJ et al (2001) Role of PTCH and p53 genes in early-onset basal cell carcinoma. Am J Pathol 158(2):381–385

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Andrija Stanimirović HČBKB (2003) Expression of p53, bcl-2 and growth hormone receptor in actinic keratosis, hypertrophic type. Arch Dermatol Res 295(3):102–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Berhane T, Halliday GM, Cooke B, Barnetson RS (2002) Inflammation is associated with progression of actinic keratoses to squamous cell carcinomas in humans. Br J Dermatol 146(5):810–815

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Grace VM, Shalini JV, Lekha TT, Devaraj SN, Devaraj H (2003) Co-overexpression of p53 and bcl-2 proteins in HPV-induced squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix. Gynecol Oncol 91(1):51–58

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Nakagawa K, Yamamura K, Maeda S, Ichihashi M (1994) bcl-2 expression in epidermal keratinocytic diseases. Cancer 74(6):1720–1724

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Feinmesser M, Tsabari C, Fichman S, Hodak E, Sulkes J, Okon E (2003) Differential expression of proliferation- and apoptosis-related markers in lentigo maligna and solar keratosis keratinocytes. Am J Dermatopathol 25(4):300–307

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Takahashi S, Pearse AD, Marks R (1994) Expression of c-fos proto-oncogene mRNA in non-melanoma skin cancer. J Dermatol Sci 7(1):54–62

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Pacheco MM, Kowalski LP, Nishimoto IN, Brentani MM (2002) Differential expression of c-jun and c-fos mRNAs in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: associations with uPA, gelatinase B, and matrilysin mRNAs. Head Neck 24(1):24–32

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Kroumpouzos G, Eberle J, Garbe C, Orfanos CE (1994) P53 mutation and c-fos overexpression are associated with detection of the antigen VLA-2 in human melanoma cell lines. Pigment Cell Res 7(5):348–353

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Yang S, McNulty S, Meyskens FL Jr (2004) During human melanoma progression AP-1 binding pairs are altered with loss of c-Jun in vitro. Pigment Cell Res 17(1):74–83

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Elmets CA, Ledet JJ, Athar M (2014) Cyclooxygenases: mediators of UV-induced skin cancer and potential targets for prevention. J Invest Dermatol 134(10):2497–2502

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Populo H, Boaventura P, Vinagre J, Batista R, Mendes A, Caldas R et al (2014) TERT promoter mutations in skin cancer: the effects of sun exposure and X-irradiation. J Invest Dermatol 134(8):2251–2257

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Lodish HBA, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Scott MP, Bretscher A (2008) Molecular cell biology. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  51. Magne N, Toillon RA, Bottero V, Didelot C, Houtte PV, Gerard JP et al (2006) NF-kappaB modulation and ionizing radiation: mechanisms and future directions for cancer treatment. Cancer Lett 231(2):158–168

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Bachelor MA, Bowden GT (2004) UVA-mediated activation of signaling pathways involved in skin tumor promotion and progression. Semin Cancer Biol 14(2):131–138

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Birch-Machin MA, Swalwell H (2010) How mitochondria record the effects of UV exposure and oxidative stress using human skin as a model tissue. Mutagenesis 25(2):101–107

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Eshaghian A, Vleugels RA, Canter JA, McDonald MA, Stasko T, Sligh JE (2006) Mitochondrial DNA deletions serve as biomarkers of aging in the skin, but are typically absent in nonmelanoma skin cancers. J Invest Dermatol 126(2):336–344

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Jakupciak JP, Wang W, Markowitz ME, Ally D, Coble M, Srivastava S et al (2005) Mitochondrial DNA as a cancer biomarker. J Mol Diagn 7(2):258–267

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Pelicano H, Carney D, Huang P (2004) ROS stress in cancer cells and therapeutic implications. Drug Resist Updat 7(2):97–110

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Birch-Machin MA (2005) Using mitochondrial DNA as a biosensor of early cancer development. Br J Cancer 93(3):271–272

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Callaghan TM, Wilhelm KP (2008) A review of ageing and an examination of clinical methods in the assessment of ageing skin. Part 2: clinical perspectives and clinical methods in the evaluation of ageing skin. Int J Cosmet Sci 30(5):323–332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Grossman D, Leffell DJ (1997) The molecular basis of nonmelanoma skin cancer: new understanding. Arch Dermatol 133(10):1263–1270

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Hofseth LJ, Saito S, Hussain SP, Espey MG, Miranda KM, Araki Y et al (2003) Nitric oxide-induced cellular stress and p53 activation in chronic inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100(1):143–148

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Athar M, An KP, Morel KD, Kim AL, Aszterbaum M, Longley J et al (2001) Ultraviolet B(UVB)-induced cox-2 expression in murine skin: an immunohistochemical study. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 280(4):1042–1047

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Buckman SY, Gresham A, Hale P, Hruza G, Anast J, Masferrer J et al (1998) COX-2 expression is induced by UVB exposure in human skin: implications for the development of skin cancer. Carcinogenesis 19(5):723–729

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Wang D, Dubois RN (2006) Prostaglandins and cancer. Gut 55(1):115–122

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Einspahr JG, Xu MJ, Warneke J, Saboda K, Ranger-Moore J, Bozzo P et al (2006) Reproducibility and expression of skin biomarkers in sun-damaged skin and actinic keratoses. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 15(10):1841–1848

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Maeda H, Akaike T (1998) Nitric oxide and oxygen radicals in infection, inflammation, and cancer. Biochemistry (Mosc) 63(7):854–865

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Coussens LM, Werb Z (2001) Inflammatory cells and cancer: think different. J Exp Med 193(6):F23–F26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Ullrich SE (2005) Mechanisms underlying UV-induced immune suppression. Mutat Res 571(1–2):185–205

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Simon JC, Tigelaar RE, Bergstresser PR, Edelbaum D, Cruz PD Jr (1991) Ultraviolet B radiation converts Langerhans cells from immunogenic to tolerogenic antigen-presenting cells. Induction of specific clonal anergy in CD4+ T helper 1 cells. J Immunol 146(2):485–491

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Norval M, Simpson TJ, Ross JA (1989) Urocanic acid and immunosuppression. Photochem Photobiol 50(2):267–275

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Noonan FP, De Fabo EC (1992) Immunosuppression by ultraviolet B radiation: initiation by urocanic acid. Immunol Today 13(7):250–254

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Kurimoto I, Streilein JW (1992) Deleterious effects of cis-urocanic acid and UVB radiation on Langerhans cells and on induction of contact hypersensitivity are mediated by tumor necrosis factor-alpha. J Invest Dermatol 99(5):69S–70S

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Kruger-Krasagakes S, Krasagakis K, Garbe C, Schmitt E, Huls C, Blankenstein T et al (1994) Expression of interleukin 10 in human melanoma. Br J Cancer 70(6):1182–1185

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Derynck R, Akhurst RJ, Balmain A (2001) TGF-beta signaling in tumor suppression and cancer progression. Nat Genet 29(2):117–129

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Baadsgaard O, Fox DA, Cooper KD (1988) Human epidermal cells from ultraviolet light-exposed skin preferentially activate autoreactive CD4+2H4+ suppressor-inducer lymphocytes and CD8+ suppressor/cytotoxic lymphocytes. J Immunol 140(6):1738–1744

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Simon JC, Cruz PD Jr, Bergstresser PR, Tigelaar RE (1990) Low dose ultraviolet B-irradiated Langerhans cells preferentially activate CD4+ cells of the T helper 2 subset. J Immunol 145(7):2087–2091

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Schmitt DA, Owen-Schaub L, Ullrich SE (1995) Effect of IL-12 on immune suppression and suppressor cell induction by ultraviolet radiation. J Immunol 154(10):5114–5120

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Wondrak GT, Roberts MJ, Cervantes-Laurean D, Jacobson MK, Jacobson EL (2003) Proteins of the extracellular matrix are sensitizers of photo-oxidative stress in human skin cells. J Invest Dermatol 121(3):578–586

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Yaar M, Gilchrest BA (2007) Photoageing: mechanism, prevention and therapy. Br J Dermatol 157(5):874–887

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Watson RE, Griffiths CE, Craven NM, Shuttleworth CA, Kielty CM (1999) Fibrillin-rich microfibrils are reduced in photoaged skin. Distribution at the dermal-epidermal junction. J Invest Dermatol 112(5):782–787

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Philips N, Burchill D, O'Donoghue D, Keller T, Gonzalez S (2004) Identification of benzene metabolites in dermal fibroblasts as nonphenolic: regulation of cell viability, apoptosis, lipid peroxidation and expression of matrix metalloproteinase 1 and elastin by benzene metabolites. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 17(3):147–152

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Philips N, Hwang H, Chauhan S, Leonardi D, Gonzalez S (2010) Stimulation of cell proliferation and expression of matrixmetalloproteinase-1 and interluekin-8 genes in dermal fibroblasts by copper. Connect Tissue Res 51(3):224–229

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Philips N, Tuason M, Chang T, Lin Y, Tahir M, Rodriguez SG (2009) Differential effects of ceramide on cell viability and extracellular matrix remodeling in keratinocytes and fibroblasts. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 22(3):151–157

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Herouy Y (2001) Matrix metalloproteinases in skin pathology (review). Int J Mol Med 7(1):3–12

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Yan C, Boyd DD (2007) Regulation of matrix metalloproteinase gene expression. J Cell Physiol 211(1):19–26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Fisher GJ, Datta SC, Talwar HS, Wang ZQ, Varani J, Kang S et al (1996) Molecular basis of sun-induced premature skin ageing and retinoid antagonism. Nature 379(6563):335–339

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Urology Division, Department of Surgery, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, USA

    Neeraj Agarwal

Authors
  1. Neeraj Agarwal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Ratan Singh Ray

  2. Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Chandana Haldar

  3. Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Ashish Dwivedi

  4. Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, USA

    Neeraj Agarwal

  5. Photobiology Division, Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Jyoti Singh

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Agarwal, N. (2018). Photocarcinogenesis and Molecular Mechanism. In: Ray, R., Haldar, C., Dwivedi, A., Agarwal, N., Singh, J. (eds) Photocarcinogenesis & Photoprotection. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5493-8_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation