Abstract
Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) belongs to the family Sapindaceae and is an esteemed member amongst the commercially important fruit crops. This delicious fruit is widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions of the world and is famous for its sweet fragrance, pleasurable taste and attractive colour. China is the largest producer of lychee in the world followed by India and Taiwan. Lychee tree is susceptible to various biotic stresses which include algae, fungi, insect pests, etc. These factors often become a hindrance for profitable fruit production. Moreover, post-harvest damage such as pericarp browning and desiccation ultimately declines the commercial value and shelf life of the fruit. Effective and timely approaches and post-harvest management practices are prerequisites in order to sustain the premium fruit quality, fruit yield and shelf life and also to control the pre-harvest diseases. Development in biotechnological techniques also provides an alternative approach for the crop improvement by introducing exotic genes with desirable characters. These genetically modified varieties hold a promising potential to upgrade the fruit quality standard in terms of disease resistance, increased shelf life and seedless character. The post-harvest practices in lychee production and their impact on fruit quality need more improvement. This chapter encompasses various diseases that downturn the yield, quality and market value of the lychee fruit and the strategies to check the pre- and post-harvest crop losses.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Abbreviations
- AA:
-
Ascorbic acid
- AFLP:
-
Amplified fragment length polymorphism
- FAO:
-
Food and Agriculture Organization
- GFP:
-
Green fluorescent protein
- GMO:
-
Genetically modified organism
- Ha:
-
Hectare
- HCl:
-
Hydrochloric acid
- IPM:
-
Integrated pest management
- PCR:
-
Polymerase chain reaction
- RAPD:
-
Random amplified polymorphic DNA
- RT-PCR:
-
Reverse transcriptase PCR
References
Acquaah G (2007) Principles of plant genetics and breeding. Blackwell, Oxford
Adams MR, Moss MO (2000) Food microbiology. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge
Ann PJ, Tsai JN, Yang HR (2011) Control of Peronophythora fruit downy blight of lychee by neutralized phosphoric acid. Plant Pathol Bull 20:90–97
Bhushan B, Pal A, Narwal R, Meena VS, Sharma PC, Singh J (2015) Combinatorial approaches for controlling pericarp browning in Litchi (Litchi chinensis) fruit. J Food Sci Technol 52(9):5418–5426
Brackett RE (1999) Incidence, contributing factors, and control of bacterial pathogens in produce. Postharvest Biol Technol 15:305–311
Codex standard for litchi (1995, amended 2005) Available from http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/320/CXS_196e.pdf. Accessed 13 Sept 2005
Das DK, Rahman A (2012) Expression of a rice chitinase gene enhances antifungal response in transgenic litchi (cv. Bedana). Plant Cell Tiss Organ Cult 109:315–325
De Jager ES, Opperman M, Korsten L (2000) Quality standards in litchi packing houses: packing house sanitation. SA Litchi Growers Assoc Yearb 11:26–29
De Roever C (1999) Microbiological safety evaluations and recommendations on fresh produce. Food Control 10:117–143
Degani C, Deng J, Beiles A, EI-Batsri R, Goren M, Gazit S (2003) Identifying lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) cultivars and their genetic relationships using intersimple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 128(6):838–845
Hilder VA, Boulter D (1999) Genetic engineering of crop plants for insect resistance-a critical review. Crop Prot 18:177–191
Holcroft DM, Mitcham E (1996) Postharvest physiology and handing of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn). Postharvest Biol Technol 9:265–281
Holcroft DM, Lin H, Ketas S (2005) Harvesting and storage. In: Menzel CM, White GK (eds) Litchi and longan: botany, production and uses. CABI Publishing, Rockhampton, pp 273–295
Hwang JY, Lin JT, Liu SC, Hu CC, Shyu YS, Yang DJ (2013) Protective role of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) flower extract against cadmium-and lead-induced cytotoxicity and transforming growth factor ß1-stimulated expression of smooth muscle α-actin estimated with rat liver cell lines. J Funct Foods 5:698–705
Ilangantileke SG, Noomhorn A, Upadhyay IP, Srinivas Rao M (1993) Effect of irradiation and storage temperature on the shelf life and quality of Thai lychee. In: Champ BR, Highley E, Johnson GI (eds) Postharvest handling of tropical fruits, vol 50. ACIAR, Canberra, pp 352–354
Jacobi KK, Wong LS, Giles JE (1993a) Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) fruit quality following vapour heat treatment and cool storage. Postharvest Biol Technol 3:111–119
Jacobi KK, Wong LS, Janet EG (1993b) Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) fruit quality following vapour heat treatment and cold storage. Postharvest Bio Technol 3:111–119
Jain SM (2005) Major mutation-assisted plant breeding programs supported by FAO/IAEA. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 82:113–123
Janisiewicz WJ, Korsten L (2002) Biological control of postharvest diseases of fruits. Annu Rev Phytopathol 40:411–441
Jiang YM, Chen F (1995) A study on polyamine change and browning of fruit during cold storage of litchi (Litchi chinensis sonn.) Postharvest Biol Technol 5:245–250
Jiang YM, Fu JR (1999) Postharvest browning of litchi fruit by water loss and its prevention by controlled atmosphere storage at high relative humidity. LWT-Food Sci Technol 32:278–283
Jiang YM, Yao L, Lichter A, Li J (2003) Postharvest biology and technology of litchi fruit. Food Agric Environ 2:76–81
Jiang Y, Duan X, Joyce D, Zhang Z, Li J (2004a) Advances in understanding of enzymatic browning in harvested litchi fruit. Food Chem 88:443–446
Jiang Y, Li Y, Li J (2004b) Browning control, shelf life extension and quality maintenance of frozen litchi fruit by hydrochloric acid. J Food Eng 63:147–151
Jiang YM, Zhu XR, Li YB (2001a) Post harvest control of Lychee fruit-rot by Bacillus subtilis. LWT Food Sci Technol 34:430–436
Jiang YM, Zhu XR, Li YB (2001b) Postharvest control of Litchi fruit rot by Bacillus subtilis. Lebensm-Wiss u-Technol 34:430–436
Joas J, Caro Y, Ducamp MN, Reynes M (2005) Postharvest control of pericarp browning of litchi fruit (Litchi chinensis Sonn cv Kwaï Mi) by treatment with chitosan and organic acids: I. Effect of pH and pericarp dehydration. Postharvest Biol Technol 38(2):128–136
Kao CW, Le LS (1980) Sporangium germination of Peronophythora litchii, the causal organism of litchi downy blight. Mycologia 72(4):737–748
Kaser C, Levin J, Wolstenholme BN (1995) Vapour, heat and low pH dips improve litchi ( Litchi chinensis Sonn.) pericarp colour retention. J S Afr Soc Hortic Sci 4:6–12
Korsten L (2006) Advances in control of postharvest diseases in tropical fresh produce. Int J Postharvest Technol Innov 1(1):48–61
Kremer-Köhne S (1993) SO2 residues in litchi fruit after post-harvest SO2 treatments. SA Litchi Growers Assoc Yearb 5:15–16
Kumar M, Prakash NS, Prasad US, Sarin NB (2006) A novel approach of regeneration from nodal explants of field grown lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) fruit trees. J Plant Sci 5(3):321–327
Kumar V, Kumar A, Nath V (2011) Emerging pests and diseases of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) Pest Manage Hortic Ecosyst 17(1):11–13
Kumar D, Mishra DS, Chakraborty B, Kumar P (2013) Pericarp browning and quality management of litchi fruit by antioxidants and salicylic acid during ambient storage. J Food Sci Technol 50(4):797–802
Lemmer D, Kruger FJ (2000) Factors influencing SO2 - residues on commercially fumigated HLH Mauritius and McLean’s red litchi fruit. SA Litchi Growers’ Assoc Yearb 11:42–46
Lichter A, Dvir O, Rot I, Akerman M, Regev R, Wiesblumb A, Fallika E, Zaubermana G, Fuchs Y (2000) Hot water brushing: an alternative method to SO2 fumigation for color retention of litchi fruits. Postharvest Biol Technol 18:235–244
Lichter A, Dvir O, Ackerman M, Feygenberg O, Pesis E (2004a) Acidified peel of litchi fruits selects for postharvest Penicillium decay. Phytoparasitica 32:226–236
Lichter A, Dvir O, Rot I, Akerman M, Regev R, Wiesblum A, Fallik E, Zauberman G, Fuchs Y (2004b) Hot water brushing: an alternative method to SO2 fumigation for color retention of litchi fruits. Postharvest Biol Technol 18:235–244
Mahajan PV, Goswami TK (2004) Extended storage life of litchi fruit using controlled atmosphere and low temperature. J Food Process Preserv 28:388–403
McMillan RT Jr (1994) Diseases of Litchi chinensis in South Florida. Proc Flo State Hortic Soc 107:360–362
Menzel C (2001) The physiology of growth and cropping in lychee. Acta Hortic 558:175–184
Menzel C (2002) The lychee crop in Asia and the pacific. Food and agriculture organization of the united nations. Regional office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand, pp 1–102
Nacif SR, Paoli AAS, Salomão LCC (2001) Morphological and anatomical development of the litchi fruit (Litchi chinensis Sonn. cv. Brewster). Fruits 56:225–233
Neog M, Saikia L (2010a) Control of post-harvest pericarp browning of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn). J Food Sci Technol 47(1):100–104
Norelli JL, Aldwinckle HS, Destéfano-Beltran L, Jaynes JM (1994) Transgenic ‘Malling 26’ apple expressing the attacin E gene has increased resistance to Erwinia amylovora. Euphytica 77:123–128
Olesen T, Nacey L, Wiltshire N, O’Brien S (2004) Hot water treatments for the control of rots on harvested litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) fruit. Postharvest Biol Technol 32:135–146
Papademetriou MK, Dent MJ (2002) Lychee production in the Asia-pacific region. Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations, Bangkok, Thailand
Park JR, McFarlane I, Phipps RH, Ceddia G (2011) The role of transgenic crops in sustainable development. Plant Biotechnol J 9:2–21
Paul RE, Reyes MEQ, Reyes MU (1995) Litchi and rambutan insect infestation: treatments to minimize induced pericarp browning. Postharvest Biol Technol 6:139–148
Paull RE, Chen NJ (1987) Effect of storage temperature and wrapping on quality characteristics of Litchi fruit. Sci Hortic 33:223–236
Pesis E, Dvir O, Feygenberg O, Arie RB, Ackerman M, Lichter A (2002) Production of acetaldehyde and ethanol during maturation and modified atmosphere storage of litchi fruit. Postharvest Biol Technol 26:157–165
Ramma I (2003) Postharvest sulphur dioxide fumigation and low acid dip for pericarp colour retention and decay prevention on litchi. AMAS pp 41–48
Ronald P (2011) Plant genetics, sustainable agriculture and global food security. Genetics 188:11–20
Sarin NB, Prasad US, Kumar M, Jain SM (2009) Litchi breeding for genetic improvement. In: Jain SM, Priyadarshan PM (eds) Breeding plantation tree crops: tropical species. Springer, Heidelberg
Schutte GC, Botha T, Kotze JM (1990) Post-harvest control of decay and browning of litchi fruit by fungicide dips and paper sheets impregnated with sodium metabisulphite. SA Litchi Growers Assoc Yearb 3:10–14
Scott KJ, Brown BI, Chaplin GR, Wilcox ME, Bain JM (1982) The control of rotting and browning of litchi fruit by hot benomyl and plastic film. Sci Hortic 16:253–262
Sinha S, Das DK (2013) Transformation of litchi (Litchi chinensis sonn.) with Gly I+II gene leads to enhanced salt tolerance. IJBAF 1(11):483–495
Sivakumar D, Korsten L (2006) Influence of modified atmosphere packaging and postharvest treatments on quality retention of litchi cv. Mauritius. Postharvest Biol Technol 41(2):135–142
Sivakumar D, Regnier T, Demoz B, Korst L (2005) Effect of different post-harvest treatments on overall quality retention in litchi fruit during low temperature storage. J Hortic Sci Biotechnol 80(1):32–38
Sivakumar D, Korsten L, Zeeman K (2007a) Postharvest management on quality retention of Litchi during storage. Fresh Produce 1(1):66–75
Sivakumar D, Zeeman K, Korsten L (2007b) Effect of a biocontrol agent (Bacillus subtilis) and modified atmosphere packaging on postharvest decay control and quality retention of litchi during storage. Phytoparasitica 35(5):507–518
Sivakumar D, Arrebola E, Korsten L (2008) Postharvest decay control and quality retention in litchi (cv. McLean’s red) by combined application of modified atmosphere packaging and antimicrobial agents. Crop Prot 27(8):1208–1214
Song L, Jiang Y, Gao H, Li C, Liu H, You Y, Sun J (2006) Effects of adenosine triphosphate on browning and quality of harvested litchi fruit. Am J Food Technol 1:173–178
Sun D, Liang G, Jianghui X, Lei X, Mo Y (2010) Improved preservation effects of litchi fruit by combining chitosan coating with ascorbic acid treatment during postharvest storage. Afr J Biotechnol 9(22):3272–3279
Swarts DH (1985) ‘Litchis’. Postharvest handling of litchis farming in South Africa. Department of Agriculture, Pretoria
Tang ZH, Wang HC, Hou YP, Zhang SP, Wang JX, Zhou MG (2011) Baseline and differential sensitivity to mandipropamid among isolates of Peronophythora litchii, the causal agent of downy blight on Lychee. Crop Prot 30:354–359
Tian SP, Li BQ, Xu Y (2005) Effects of O2 and CO2 concentrations on physiology and quality of litchi fruit in storage. Food Chem 91:659–663
Timberlake CF, Bridle P (1967) Flavylium salts, anthocyanins. 1. Reactions with Sulphur dioxide. J Food Sci Agric 18:479–485
Underhill SJR, Simons DH (1993) Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) pericarp desiccation and the importance of postharvest micro-cracking. Sci Hortic 54:287–294
Wahab S (2009) Biotechnological approaches in the management of plant pests, diseases and weeds for sustainable agriculture. J Biopesticides 2:115–134
Wong LS, Jacobi KK, Giles JE (1991) The influence of hot benomyl dips on the appearance of cool stored lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) Sci Hortic 46:245–251
Wu B, Li X, Hu H, Liu A, Chen W (2011) Effect of chlorine dioxide on the control of postharvest diseases and quality of litchi fruit. Afr J Biotechnol 10(32):6030–6039
Xuewu Duan, Yueming Jiang, Xinguo Su, Hai Liu, Yuebiao Li, Zhaoqi Zhang, Yonghua Zheng, Weibo Jiang (2004) Role of pure oxygen treatment in browning of litchi fruit after harvest. Plant Sci 167:665–668
Yang DJ, Chang YZ, Chen YC, Liu SC, Hsu CH, Lin JT (2012) Antioxidant effect and active components of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) flower. Food Chem Toxicol 50(9):3056–3061
Yi-Hsieng Samuel Wu, Chih-Hsien Chiu, Deng-Jye Yang, Yi-Ling Lin, Jung-Kai Tseng, Yi-Chen Chen (2013) Inhibitory effects of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) flower-water extracts on lipase activity and diet-induced obesity. J Funct Foods 5(2):923–929
Yueming Jiang, Lihu Yao, Amon Lichter, Jianrong Li (2003b) Postharvest biology and technology of litchi fruit. Food, Agric Environ 1(2):76–81
Zauberman G, Ronen R, Akerman M, Fuchs Y (1990) Low pH treatment protects litchi fruit color. Acta Hortic 269:309–314
Zauberman G, Ronen R, Akerman M, Weksler A, Rot I, Fuchs Y (1991) Post-harvest retention of the red colour of litchi fruit pericarp. Sci Hortic 47:89–97
Zhang DL, Quantick PC (1997) Effects of chitosan coating on enzymatic browning and decay during postharvest storage of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) fruit. Postharvest Biol Technol 12:195–202
Zhang Z, Pang X, Xuewu D, Ji Z, Jiang Y (2001) Role of peroxidase in anthocyanin degradation in litchi fruit pericarp. Food Chem 75:217–221
Zhang Z, Yuan P, Wang B, Qiu Y, Li J (1997) Litchi pictorial narration of cultivation. Pomology Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Science, Guangdong
Zhanga Z, Panga X, Jia Z, Jiang Y (2001) Role of anthocyanin degradation in litchi pericarp browning. Food Chem 75:217–221
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Koul, B., Taak, P. (2017). Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.): Pre- and Post-harvest Disease Management. In: Kumar, M., Kumar, V., Bhalla-Sarin, N., Varma, A. (eds) Lychee Disease Management. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4247-8_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4247-8_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-10-4246-1
Online ISBN: 978-981-10-4247-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)