Yongle 永樂, the emperor who ascended the throne in 1403, promoted an extremely positive foreign policy, actively dispatching
large-scale fleets and envoys
, represented by Zheng He’s expedition
, both to maritime and Inner Asia
. As a result, the tributaries of the Ming rapidly expanded to a vast range in the Indian Ocean, in North and West Asia, as well as in East and Southeast Asia
(Ōsumi 1984). To manage tribute trade
with maritime Asian polities, the Ming court reopened the Maritime Trade Supervisorates
in Guangzhou, Quanzhou
and Ningbo in 1403, and repositioned them as agencies dealing with tribute trade rather than as agencies for controlling private trade, as had previously been the case.
In the Eastern Zone
, Korea and Ryukyu send outstandingly numerous missions in all tributaries
, and Japan also sent missions almost every year from 1401 to 1411 (Sakuma 1992: 97–140; Nakajima 2003). In
the Southern Zone, except for the main tributary states such as Siam
, Champa
, Melaka
and Java
, many states and port cities sent tributes in response to Zheng He’s voyage. In addition, from the Indian Ocean Zone, many polities in India, West Asia, Arabia and East Africa sent missions along with the return voyages of Zheng He’s fleets. It is especially noticeable that important ports along the main sailing routes that linked Eastern and Western Eurasia, such as Melaka, Sumatra, Lamuri, Ceylon
, Cochin, Calicut, Hormuz
and Aden, repeatedly sent tributes and engaged in tribute trade with the Ming court (Qiu 1995: 135–203).
Zheng He’s fleets not only performed the role of diplomatic and military power display, but also achieved the aims of large-scale trading missions
(Yajima 1993: 243–274). They positively conducted trade at every calling port, exported Chinese goods and imported tropical products such as pepper and
sappanwood (Ptak 2003: 165–170; Wada
1967, 1981).
7
Zheng He’s expedition
brought about the revival
of long-distance trade in maritime Asia, which had once flourished under Mongol rule, but had declined during the ‘fourteenth century general crisis’. On the other hand, under the strict maritime exclusion
policy, no one was permitted to engage in private overseas trade, though illicit private trade did not cease, even in the heyday
of the tribute trade
in the early fifteenth century.
Tribute trade with Inner Asian states, which was operated only on a limited scale in the first period, also expanded considerably in the second period. In the Northern Zone, the Yongle emperor founded the Regional Military Commission (dusi 都司)
in Manchuria
and organized the Jurchen
tribes belonging to Haixi 海西
, Jianzhou 建州
, and Yeren 野人
Nuzhen 女真
into the military guard (wei 衛) system
, bestowing nominal titles of military offices on the chieftains
of those tribes. These Jurchen chieftains, who were bestowed these titles, sent tribute missions in every year, along with the chieftains of the Mongolian tribes in Western Manchuria, who were organized into three guards units known as the three Uriyanghad
guards
(Wuliangha sanwei 兀良哈三衛).
The Jurchen and Uriyanghad tribes not only carried out tributary trade, but also engaged in ‘mutual trade’ in the
‘horse markets
’ (mashi 馬市) founded in Guanning 廣寧
and Kaiyuan 開原
in Liaodong 遼東
, where the Jurchens and the
Uriyangkhad (one of the Mongols mainly living in Manchuria) brought horses and other products such as ginseng
, and bought various Chinese products
(Serruys 1967: 3–7, 113–126, 1975: 92–103; Ejima 1999: 153–181, 217–244)
. On the other hand, in the Mongol plateau
, the Yongle emperor bestowed seals and the title of
Prince (wang王) on the leaders of the Mongols and the Oirads
. However, tribute relationships between the Ming with the Mongols and the Oirads remained unstable, and so the Yongle emperor led five militarily expeditions
to the Mongolian plateau. In spite of such military confrontations
, Chinese goods were indispensable
for the Mongols and the Oirads, so the Mongol leader Arughtai
sent tribute missions as many as 44 times during the second period, and the Oirats leaders also sent missions almost every year after 1408 onwards
(Serruys 1967: 5–9, 126–127).
In the Western Zone, the Yongle emperor organized the Mongol princes residing between the Hexi 河西 corridor
and the Tarim basin
into seven military guards
, and let them send tributes. In particular, the Mongol prince of Hami
, which was a gateway
for the caravan
trade along the Silk Road, was bestowed with the title of
‘Zhongshun wang 忠順王’. And Hami was positioned as the key point for controlling diplomatic and commercial relations with Central Asia
(Nagamoto 1963; Rossabi 1998: 246–250). In
addition, from Eastern Turkistan, which was under the influence of the Moghulistan Khanate
, some locales such as Bishbalik
, Ilibalik
and Turfan
sent tributes to the Ming. Further, from Western Turkistan and Iran, which were within the territory of the Timurid Empire
, various missions from Samarkand
, Herat and other cities along the Silk Road routes, in which many caravan merchants accompanied, were dispatched
to the Ming court and engaged in tribute trade
(Rossabi 1998: 246–250; Zhang 2006).
Besides, Yongle invited leaders of the main sects of
Tibetan Buddhism
to the capital, bestowed upon them the title of religious prince
(fawang 法王, jiaowang 教王, etc.)
and incorporated them into tribute relations, although the Tibetan monks perceived the Ming emperor as their religious patrons
rather than their sovereign
(Satō 1986: 173–320; Rossabi 1998: 241–245). In addition, the Tibetan tribes and temples in the
Eastern Tibetan plateau
(the Amdo and Kham regions)
were incorporated into the military system of the Ming, were bestowed with nominal military titles and engaged in horse-tea
trade at the Horse Trading office, as well as tribute trade
(Tani 1972: 55–70; Yi 2000: 166–204, 247–255).