Abstract
This study focuses on the mutual artistic images shared between Europe and China so as to seek out and compare the current conditions of their cultural psychology. Above all, a theoretical argument will be made that Europe and China hold a special position in the establishment and development of the cultural psychology of the other. In this research, the image of this other is analyzed under the consideration of two aspects: The diagonal study focuses on the hidden cultural psychological structure in the image of the other, whilst the longitudinal research aims to outline the diachronic process of the change in the image of the other. Resorting to the theory of psychoanalysis, the shapes of cultural psychology and the development of two cultural entities—Europe and China—are subsequently sketched and compared. By these means, a new method of classifying cultural morphology is suggested; namely, cultural psychology is classified into four stages: the pre-Oedipal stage/mirror stage, the Oedipal stage, the post-Oedipal stage and the conciliatory stage. The present study proves that the China-image in Europe has gradually been freed from Orientalism over the past three decades, which is a sign of its standing at the entrance to conciliatory stage. The Europe-image in contemporary China is still steeped in Occidentalism, which indicates that China is still mired in the Oedipal stage. The encounter between the two different stages of Europe and China is discussed in order to find a better way to promote mutual understanding between the two and to make the cooperation more effective in the globalized world. Finally, this study speculates on the impetus that will propel China into the next stage.
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- 1.
“The big Other designates radical alterity, an other-ness which transcends the illusory otherness of the imaginary because it cannot be assimilated through identification. Lacan equates this radical alterity with language and the law, and hence the big Other is inscribed in the order of the symbolic. Indeed, the big Other is the symbolic insofar as it is particularised for each subject. The Other is thus both another subject, in his radical alterity and unassimilable uniqueness, and also the symbolic order which mediates the relationship with that other subject.” (Evans 2006, p. 136).
- 2.
“[T]he subject acquires a ‘symbolic’ identity that is different in kind from the ‘imaginary’ identity acquired at the level of the ego. Symbolic identification consists in being recognized by the big Other, thereby obviating the need for struggle at the imaginary level.” (Cutrofello 2005, p. 168).
- 3.
The Lacanian term “autre” is written uniformly as “the little other” in this study.
- 4.
“The mirror phase theory had shown how the human infant attains a mastery of its motor functions through capture in an image. An image is assumed which is first of all outside, be it in a mirror or in the image of another child. This identification, Lacan argues, will set the framework of the ego. … The constitution of the ego always takes place in reference to the other, the specular little other whose image the subject has appropriated. The arrow goes from [other] to [ego] to indicate that the ego is first of all the other, that it is the image of the other that will constitute our own identity.” (Leader 2003, p. 179).
- 5.
“[S]ilk was coined from the Greek name for China (Seres).” (Rossabi 1997, p. 7) “In the Roman Empire, senators and upper-class women wore delicate Chinese silk and referred to China as the land of the Seres, or ‘silk people’.” (Perkins 2013, p. 464) The French historian George Cœdès mentioned that the “land of silk (pays de la soie)” in the works of the authors in the Classical times refers to the China (Coedès 1977, p. 1).
- 6.
“On dit que Seres … sont de si haute stature, … ils vivent plus de 200 ans.” (Coedès 1977, p. 1).
- 7.
Until at least the 14th Century, the story of the wool-bearing tree was still considered scientific knowledge when mentioned by scholars (Coedès 1977, p. 161).
- 8.
“L’intervalle qui sépare ces deux montagnes est habité par les Sêres, nation pleine de justice et bien connue pour la manière dont ils font le commerce, laquelle consiste à laisser les marchandises dans un lieu solitaire où l’acheteur en prend livraison hors de leur presence.” (Coedès 1977, p. 11).
- 9.
All 92 of these quotes were collected by George Coedès in his work Textes d’auteurs grecs et latins relatifs à l’Extrême-Orient (1977).
- 10.
- 11.
See Makpobioi of Lucien (Coedès 1977, p. 75).
- 12.
See Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium of Solin (Coedès 1977, p. 85).
- 13.
See Comment Dionysius Periegeta of Eustathius of Thessalonica (Coedès 1977, p. 158).
- 14.
See Praeparatio Evangelica of Bardaisan (Coedès 1977, p. 77).
- 15.
See Adversus Hæreses III of Epiphanius (Coedès 1977, p. 91).
- 16.
See Res gestae of Ammianus Marcellinus (Coedès 1977, p. 97).
- 17.
For instance: Ystoria Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus (History of the Mongols, which we call Tartars) of Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratia 1253 ad partes Orientales (The Journey of William of Rubruk to the Eastern Parts) of William of Rubruck.
- 18.
In this study, the term “European film” is defined as a film shot by a European director.
- 19.
E.g.: The Last Emperor (1987), Drachenfutter (Dragon-fodder) (1987), L’amant (1992), Irma Vep (1996), Augustin, roi du Kung-fu (1999), Maður eins og ég (A Man like me) (2002), Clean (2004), Kinamand (Chinaman) (2005), Jadesoturi (Jade-Warrior) (2006), Gomorra (2008), City of Trance (2008), Qu’est-ce qu’on a fait au Bon Dieu? (2014).
- 20.
As mentioned before, the term “Europe” used in this study is not meant to refer to the geographical or political notion, but rather the concept of “culture circles” (Veit 2013, pp. 188–189; Hahn 2013, p. 357). At the time of writing the book 史记 (Records of the Grand Historian), there was a lack of cognitive conditions and information about the geographical and political landscapes of the world, so that for the Chinese, concepts like the “Roman Empire” and “Europe” were very ambiguous. Thus, the Roman Empire was understood as a whole culture circle, which represents the extremely Western area of the world in the Chinese cognitive scope and cannot be divided into the geographical European part and Non-European part. Therefore, although the dominion of the Roman Empire was eventually extended over Western Asia, the Chinese perception of the Roman Empire represents a primitive perception of Europe.
- 21.
Han Dynasty: 206 B.C.E. to 220 C.E.
- 22.
Wei Dynasty: 386–534.
- 23.
Tang Dynasty: 618–907.
- 24.
Song Dynasty: 960–1279.
- 25.
Ming Dynasty: 1368–1644.
- 26.
Original text: “大秦又称海西国, 此海海水广大, 往来者逢善风, 三月乃得度。若遇迟风, 亦有二岁者。” (Pang 2006, p. 5).
- 27.
Original text: “从安息界安谷城乘船直截海西,遇风利二月到,风迟或一岁,无风或三岁。” (Pang 2006, p. 9).
- 28.
Original text: “地方数千里,有四百余城,小国役属者数十”, “土多金银奇宝”, “凡外国诸珍异皆出焉”。(Pang 2006, pp. 5–6).
- 29.
Original text: “其人高鼻深目,多毛。” (Pang 2006, p. 11).
- 30.
Original text: “男子悉著素衣,妇人皆服珠锦。” (Pang 2006, p. 18).
- 31.
Original text: “其人质直,市无二价。” (Fan 2000, p. 1974).
- 32.
Original text: “终无盗贼寇警。” (Pang 2006, p. 7).
- 33.
Original text: “常使一人持囊随王车,人有言事者,即以书投囊中。王至宫发省,理其枉直。…. 其王无常人,皆简立贤者。” (Pang 2006, pp. 6–7).
- 34.
Original text: “又有天主国,更在佛国之西,其人通文理,儒雅与中国无别。” (Pang 2006, p. 87).
- 35.
Original text: “佛郎机之来…与边民交易,其价尤平,其日用饮食之资于吾民者,如米面猪鸡之数,其价皆倍于常,故边民乐与为市。未尝侵暴我边疆,杀戳我人民,劫掠我财物。且其初来,虑群盗剽掠己,为我驱逐,故群盗畏惮不敢肆。” (Hao 2011, p. 90).
- 36.
Qing Dynasty: 1644–1912.
- 37.
Broadly translated, the word “Tianxia (天下, tiānxià)” literally means “Everything under Heaven” or “All the land under the heavens”. It was used by the ancient Chinese to refer to the whole world as they knew and imagined it (Tong 2006, p. 305). More specifically, it denotes the realm of Chinese culture and civilization. “The tian xia was perceived as a civilization realm where Chinese social and cultural practices prevailed against the social and cultural practices of the nomadic and other neighbouring kingdoms in the peripheral regions of China” (Tan 2014, p. 496).
- 38.
Xiaomei Chen points out that Occidentalism is a discursive practice that, by constructing its Western Other, has allowed the Orient to participate actively and with indigenous creativity in the process of self-appropriation, even after being appropriated and constructed by Western Others (Chen 1995, pp. 4–5).
- 39.
E.g. 粤剑编 (Book of Yue Sword) by 王临亨 (Wáng-Línhēng, 1548–1601), 竹叶亭杂记 (Sketches from the Bamboo-Leaf Pavilion) by 姚元之(Yáo-Yuánzhī, 1776–1852) (Meng 2006, pp. 15–18).
- 40.
E.g. 老残游记 (The Travel of Old Can) by 刘鹗 (Liú-È, 1857–1909), 警世钟 (Bell for the World) by 刘天华 (Liú-Tiānhuá, 1875–1905) (Meng 2006, pp. 1–2).
- 41.
土豪 (tŭháo) once meant rich landowner, the villainous landed gentry and class enemy of communist China’s proletariat. Now, 土豪 (tŭháo) has a new meaning: 土 (tŭ) means dirt or uncouth; 豪 (háo) means splendor; 土豪 thus refers to the “Beverly Hillbillies” of China. Their love for “bling” has become the backbone of the global luxury goods industry, yet they are also the subject of disdain, the butt of jokes, the punching bag for that which is offensive to good taste (Taub 2014, pp. 26–27).
- 42.
- 43.
“Europe has experienced a rapid growth in the Chinese population from 0.60 million in 1980 to 1.45 million in 2000 and jumping to 2.15 million in 2007. With a focus on the period from 2000 to 2007, in particular, the growth rate in Europe was about 48.3 per cent, considerably higher than the 12.5% global growth rate over the same period” (Wu and Latham 2014, p. 304).
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Wang, X. (2017). Hopeful Disappointment: Cultural Morphology and the Relation Between China and Europe. In: Dervin, F., Machart, R. (eds) Intercultural Communication with China. Encounters between East and West. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4014-6_2
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