Abstract
After Morita therapy , Naikan is the next representative Japanese psychotherapeutic approach from a chronological point of view.
It is not the end of the physical body that should worry us. Rather, our concern should be to live while we are alive.
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
The second combination of characters appeared later to describe “the beauty of impermanence,” mujō-bikan(無常美感) (Kamei 1969: 6). As Addiss et al. suggest, the awareness of life’s impermanence, and of one’s own finitude as both aesthetic and spiritual values produce “in a sensitive person the possibility of a sense for beauty” (Addiss et al. 2006: 85). The aesthetics of impermanence is depicted in masterpieces of the medieval Japanese literature such as An Account of My Hut by Kamo no Chōmei and Essays in Idleness by Yoshida Kenkō. Both authors renounced the world and became representatives of the so-called recluse literature (Hiekata 2009: 19).
- 3.
In the context of Jōdo Shinshū, nembutsu means repeating the phrase Namu Amida Butsu (南無阿弥陀仏—“Homage to Infinite Light” or “Adoration to the Buddha of Infinite Life and Light”). According to the Japanese religious scholar Masaharu Anesaki, “this formula had been in use before the time of Hōnen, especially among votaries of Buddha Amida, but it was Hōnen who exhorted an exclusive use of the formula as an expression of devotion and gratitude” (Anesaki 1963: 173).
- 4.
According to Daisetz Teitarō Suzuki, “it was not until the thirteenth century in Japan, during the Kamakura period, that the Primal Vow appeared on the center stage of history. The ripening of karmic circumstances, including sociopolitical disintegration, civil strifes and natural calamities, awareness of human finitude, and growing religiosity, prepared the way for the Primal Vow to become fully manifest and to play a crucial and lasting role in the life of the people” (Suzuki 1998: 14).
- 5.
It is worth mentioning that in its teaching about faith, Jōdo Shinshū is astonishingly akin to Christianity. The Jōdo teaching “is believed by some scholars to have been influenced by Nestorian Christianity in China before it crossed over to Japan, and its modern priests readily borrow Christian ideas and terminology” (Shepherd 1937: 77). In this sense, Shinran’s striking teaching can be interpreted as similar to the Biblical parable of the prodigal son in the Gospel of Luke (Luke 15: 11–32), or to the simile of the one of a hundred sheep gone astray (Anesaki 1963: 183). One more parallel could be drawn again with the Gospel of Luke, according to which Lord Jesus Christ says to the criminal crucified next to Him, “Truly I tell you, today you will be with me in Paradise” (Luke 23: 43).
- 6.
By no-self we should not understand a lack of self or of self-conscious faculties, but rather the direction of these faculties as we discussed in the chapter on Morita therapy. Psychiatrist Takao Oda suggests that muga means giving up one’s Ego-driven intentions (Oda 2005: 47), whereas the American philosopher David Edward Shaner interprets it from “the more axiomatic consideration that nothing in this cosmos has been empirically verified as existing” (Shaner in Callicott and Ames 1989: 170). As “all things in this world are impermanent,” the Buddhist tradition suggests, the self too “is subject to constant change” (ibid.). Muga can also be defined as a state of utmost peacefulness that a human being can attain (Kanamitsu 1985: 224).
- 7.
Kibe is one of the subsects of the orthodox Jōdo Shinshū. Its doctrine is the closest one to that of the Hongan-ji-ha(本願寺派) dominant sect.
- 8.
The first character of this word—mi(身)—is used nowadays to signify “body” or, in certain cases, “self,” but in the past it referred to the entire human being as an indestructible triunity of body, mind, and spirit (Miki and Kuroki 1998: 284; Maeshiro 2010); also, a state of complete oneness. Shirabe, in turn, derives from the verb shiraberu(調べる), which means “to explore,” “to examine,” hence the whole word comes to mean “to explore oneself thoroughly.” For further details on the concept of mi, see Hiroshi Ichikawa’s work The Structure of Mi (1993) and Noboru Yasuda’s work The Body of the Japanese (2014).
- 9.
Taikan (諦観) is a Buddhist term, which means “to see the truth clearly”; an (庵) means “hermitage; humble cottage”.
- 10.
- 11.
According to Kusunoki, it was Taikan Nishimoto’s enlightenment under the guidance of master Chiekō that made mishirabe popular for the first time, but the practice’s very origin nevertheless remains unknown (see footnote 13). However, it is probably related with the history of Jōdo Shinshū (Kusunoki in Kawahara 1998: 1–2), especially judging by the fact that master Chiekō lived in Nose, which is located in the region of Hokuriku often called the “Pure Land sect kingdom” (Itsuki 2001: 117). Additionally, founder Yoshimoto defined mishirabe as a spiritual practice maintained by a special branch of Jōdo Shinshū and this practice served as a basis for the development of Naikan (Yoshimoto 1983: 21). However, Yoshimoto had in mind not Kibe or any other of the official Jōdo Shinshū branches, but exactly the Taikan-an religious group (in private communication with Mieko Hariki, head of Osaka Naikan Training Center and direct disciple of Ishin Yoshimoto from 1973 until Yoshimoto’s death in 1988, October 2012). It is very likely that Yoshimoto preferred not to name this religious group since officially he was a Kibe monk and when in 1955 he registered his temple in Yamato-kōriyama—Naikan-ji(内観寺)—he listed it as a branch temple of this sect (Maeshiro in Miki and Maeshiro 2006: 201). Yoshimoto was aware that mishirabe “was seen as a “pagan activity” by many other Shin Buddhists” (Ozawa-de Silva 2006: 7) for whom the sincere nembutsu was the only path to salvation. Probably because of this, no particular relationship between Taikan-an group and the Kibe branch can be found out (Maeshiro in Miki and Maeshiro 2006: 201).
- 12.
Hence in the English-language literature on Naikan Yoshimoto is often considered a businessman.
- 13.
Considering the Buddhist roots of mishirabe, the Naikan specialist Ryōji Takeda suggests that although no clear evidences can be provided, naikan may also be related to the Buddhist term naibu-kanshō(内部観照), which means “to contemplate inward” (Takeda in Sato 1972: 167); whereas the physical education researcher Hidemasa Yatabe referes naikan to an ascetic training handed down in the ancient Taoist tradition. This training required the practitioner to carefully explore the flow of energy throughout their bodies and the condition of their internal organs. Later on, the training was incorporated in mishirabe—a religious practice of the Jōdo Shū Buddhism (Yatabe 2011: 180).
- 14.
It should be noticed that Fujikawa used the term naikan only in the sense of “deep introspection” without referring to any particular method (Kawahara 1996: 103; Kawahara 1998: 8). On the other hand, Fujikawa, who was also a successful researcher of Jōdo Shinshū, suggested that the naikan practice was related to myōkō-nin (妙好人—“wondrous, excellent person”)—an ordinary, but extremely pious Jōdo Shinshū devotee who lives a life of total dedication to Buddha Amida. Fujikawa described myōkō-nin as “the one who practices naikan” and it is probable that when naming the approach Yoshimoto took his cue exactly from this definition. Therefore, as Takeda suggests, the goal of Yoshimoto’s Naikan method is the becoming of myōkō-nin (Takeda in Sato 1972: 168). However important this topic might be, it requires yet another detour which is difficult to afford in this book.
- 15.
Although dōjō (道場) can be translated as “training hall” or “training center,” in this case we prefer to stick to using the Japanese word because it implies the original idea about Dō(道)—the Way—as a symbol of spiritual transformation, which is eventually Naikan’s ultimate goal (the concept of Dō we discussed in Sect. 3.2). Hence one more possible translation of dōjō could be that suggested by Keel, i.e., “a place for cultivating enlightenment” (Keel 1995: 54). For further details on the topic, see Sect. 6.1.7.
- 16.
In 1965 “Yoshimoto started charging a small fee for Naikan, taking others’ advice that free Naikan might actually dissuade people from doing it, since Naikan might then be mistaken for an obscure new religion” (Ozawa-de Silva 2006: 8).
- 17.
These scholars are considered pioneers of the Naikan implementation outside of the Naikan dōjō into a hospital setting.
- 18.
- 19.
The comparisons in this table are partly based on “Naikan as Psychotherapy”—a paper presented by Dr. Shō’ichi Ihara, psychiatrist and Catholic bishop, at the 24th Naikan Workshop held in October 2012 in Kyoto, as well as on Teruaki Maeshiro and Mieko Hariki’s paper “Ishin Yoshimoto—A Brief Life Story” (1995).
- 20.
In postwar Japan “a plethora of new religious sects began to emerge” (Befu 1971: 117) mostly because of “the turmoil and confusion which swept the country in the wake of a complete military defeat and unconditional surrender” (ibid.).
- 21.
For example, the rules of the Nara Naikan Training Center include “Keep silence”; “Do not disturb the other practitioners”; “Do not enter other practitioners’ rooms under any pretext”; “Do not scrawl on the walls or furniture”; “Handle the center’s property carefully,” etc.
- 22.
Although he himself did not state it clearly, Yoshimoto introduced the practice of joining palms and bowing in order to express reverence toward the Buddhahood that lies dormant in every Naikan practitioner (Ikemi, as cited in Nagashima 2004: 46). Indeed, considering that the practitioner sits in a narrow space all surrounded by a folding screen, this act resembles the ritual opening of a home altar where a statue of Buddha is kept (Nagashima 1991: 74).
- 23.
In this case we can borrow the Japanese-born American anthropologists Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney and Takie Sugiyama Lebra’s terminology and define Naikan as “indigenous treatment” (Ohnuki-Tierney 1984: 82) and “ethnotherapy” (Lebra 2004: 31). Lebra’s earlier definition of Naikan as “culturally based moral rehabilitation” (1976: 201) reads a little obsolete, but it nevertheless reflects the fact that Naikan “best elucidates the core values of Japanese culture” (ibid.).
- 24.
What we suggest here is a possible interpretation of the Naikan’s therapeutic structure. According to the psychiatrist Ryūzō Kawahara, for example, Naikan’s therapeutic structure is based on four pillars: the three questions, maternal-like care and empathy, paternalistic rules, and strong concentration on the part of the client (Kawahara in Kawahara et al. 1999: 4–8).
- 25.
After a full renovation carried out in 2003, Yoshimoto’s center in Yamato-kōriyama, Yamato Naikan Training Center, is now functioning under the guidance of Teruaki Maeshiro—Professor of Clinical Psychology at Bukkyo University and the center’s third-generation director—and his wife, the Naikan specialist Naoko Maeshiro. The other center, the Nara Naikan Training Center, opened in 1983 with the direct support of Ishin Yoshimoto. It has been operating for more than 30 years now by Yoshihiko Miki, Honorary Professor at Osaka University, and his wife and the center’s director, the clinical psychologist Junko Miki (see Appendix II).
- 26.
This is the schedule applied at the Nara Naikan Training Center. The schedules at other centers may vary slightly, but in general they all follow a common pattern.
- 27.
Terms such as “symbolic” and “archetypal”, typical of the Jungian psychology, are used here to refer to factors or types of experiences that we all share as human beings. However interesting the comparisons between Naikan and Jungian psychology might be, lack of space prevents us from discussing them here. For further references on the topic, see Tanaka (2004) and Chervenkova (2013).
- 28.
Byōbu(屏風)literally means “a wall that protects from wind”, while the closed space thus created by the screen is called hōza(法座)—“a place where the teachings of Buddha are preached and listened to,” i.e., “a sacred space.”
- 29.
Takie Sugiyama Lebra suggests that the phases of the intensive Naikan process can be summarized as “initial confusion or resistance; “awakening”; self-repulsion and depression; and hopefulness and tranquility” (Lebra 1976: 212).
- 30.
It is worth mentioning that during the interview the interviewer uses the verb “explore,” i.e., “Which relationship did you explore over the past 2 hours?” instead of “think about” or “remember” (on the meaning of mishirabe, see footnote 8). As the Naikan specialist Kakusei Yanagita suggests, the third Naikan question refers to the practitioner’s effort to explore, discover and face the dark aspects of their own personality (Yanagita 1997: 34–35).
- 31.
In his work Naikan—Theory and Cultural Relevance (1996), Takao Murase discusses the three Naikan questions in the context of the psychological characteristics of Japanese culture and suggests that the third question exclusively represents the Japanese psychology of sin. The first two Naikan questions Murase defines as representing respectively the psychology of gratitude and that of filial piety (Murase 1996: 156–165).
- 32.
For further references, see the seminal work of the German Jungian psychologist Erich Neumann The Great Mother—An Analysis of the Archetype (1955). Neumann points out that only when we have considered “the whole scope of the basic feminine functions—the giving of life, nourishment, warmth, and protection—can we understand why the Feminine occupies such central position in human symbolism and from the very beginning bears the character of “greatness” (Neumann 1955: 43).
- 33.
As Takie Sugiyama Lebra points out, “one can imagine how disarming this gestural humility and politeness might be to a prison inmate” (Lebra 1976: 213).
- 34.
In addition to the similarities between Ishin Yoshimoto and Shinran that we already discussed, a striking similarity between their statements, too, could be found: “The heart that thinks there is a tomorrow is as transient as the cherry blossom, for is there not the midnight wind?” (Shinran, as cited in Reischauer 1970: 108).
- 35.
For example, “Naikan as Mourning Work” (Takino 1980; Takino in Kawahara 1998), “Naikan and Medicine” (Takemoto 1994), “Thanatology and Naikan” (Kusano 2001a), and “The Theme of Death and Rebirth in the Naikan Process” (Kusano 2001b). In recent years, “catholic Naikan meditation” emerged as a mourning work method targeting Christians in Japan. This meditation was introduced by Naosato Fujiwara, a Catholic priest and head of Kokoro-no-Ihori Naikan Meditation Centre in Osaka. “The focus of Catholic Naikan upon the dead comes first from Fujiwara’s initial experience of Naikan, which was a meditation on his relationship with his dead father” (Kazuyoshi in Harding et al. 2015:170). The goal of this practice “is to engage in a shamanistic exercise in a place where one artificially experiences death” (Kazuyoshi in Harding et al. 2015:171).
- 36.
Let us remember that these were the two pillars of Jōdo Shinshū as initially formulated by the influential Chinese Buddhist writer Shandao in the 7th century.
- 37.
「裏を見せ 表を見せて 散る紅葉」(translated by Yoel Hoffmann in Hoffmann 1986: 268).
- 38.
It is important to mention that in Japanese the word for “self, oneself” is jibun (自分), which literally means “my part (of the whole).” This word is probably derived from shizen-no-bunshin「自然の分身」(Noguchi 2003: iv), which means “I am the same as Nature, Nature is the same as me”.
- 39.
In Hinduism, this worldview is figuratively depicted as the jewel net of Indra—a wondrous net hung in the heavenly abode of the great god Indra. “If we now arbitrarily select one of these jewels for inspection and look closely at it, we will discover that in its polished surface there are reflected all the other jewels in the net, infinite in number. Not only that, but each of the jewels reflected in this one jewel is also reflecting all the other jewels, so that there is an infinite reflecting process occurring” (Cook in Callicott and Ames 1989: 214). This is a relationship of “simultaneous mutual identity and mutual intercausality” (ibid.).
- 40.
This process appears somewhat similar to that of “self-emptying” of one’s will, known as kenosis in the Christian theology. It is summarized in the Apostle Paul’s words “I am crucified with Christ: nevertheless I live; yet not I, but Christ liveth in me” (Galatians 2: 20). We find this similarity interesting to mention in the context of Naikan therapy especially if we take into account that many Naikan clients “start to use passive expressions such as ikasareteiru (“being lived”), aisareteiru (“being loved”) and kizukasetemorau (“being led to sudden insight”)” (Ozawa-de Silva 2006: 10–11).
- 41.
In private communication with Junko Miki, Director of Nara Naikan Training Center (May 2011).
- 42.
More common points could be found between Naikan therapy and the Kleinian psychoanalysis, which includes such concepts as the good mother, envy, reparation (atonement), and sense of guilt, all of them considered pillars of the early childhood development. For further references on this comparison, see Kitami in Baba et al. (1990: 241–248).
- 43.
In private communication with Junko Miki, Director of Nara Naikan Training Center (May 2011).
- 44.
The interpretation of Naikan’s religious essence (in a very broad sense of the word) we base on the etymology of the word “religion,” which originates from the Latin religare—“to reconnect” (see Sect. 6.1.5.).
References
Addiss, Stephen, G. Groemer, J. Th. Rimer: Traditional Japanese Arts and Culture—An Illustrated Sourcebook, University of Hawai’i Press, 2006
Andrews, Allan A.: World Rejection and Pure Land Buddhism in Japan, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, Vol. 4(4), Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture, 1977
Anesaki, Masaharu: History of Japanese Religion: with Special Reference to the Social and Moral Life of the Nation, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1963
Anesaki, Masaharu: Art, Life and Nature in Japan, Tuttle (Charles E.) Co Inc, 1974
Baba, Ken’ichi, A. Fukushima, K. Ogawa, Y.Yamanaka (ed.): Depth Analysis of the Japanese Psyche—Depths of Maternity, Yuhikaku Publishing, 1984 (in Japanese)
Baba, Ken‘ichi, A. Fukushima, K. Ogawa, Y.Yamanaka (ed.): Depth Analysis of the Japanese Psyche—Depths of the Japanese People, Yuhikaku Publishing, 1990 (in Japanese)
Bary, Wm. Theodore de (ed.): Introduction to Asian Civilizations: Sources of Japanese Tradition, Vol.1 (complied by Ryusaku Tsunoda, Wm. Theodore de Bary, Donald Keene), Columbia University Press, 1964
Becker, Carl: Death Experience—In Search of Near-Death Phenomena, Hozokan, 1992 (in Japanese)
Befu, Harumi: Japan: An Anthropological Introduction, Harper&Row Publishers Inc, 1971
Callicott, J.Baird, R.T. Ames (ed.): Nature in Asian Traditions of Thought—Essays in Environmental Philosophy, State University of New York Press, 1989
Chervenkova, Velizara: Application of Naikan Therapy to Bulgarians—Its Challenges and Possibilities (Comparative Study of Written Naikan to Drug-Addicted and Healthy Persons), Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol. 18, Japan Naikan Assocation, 2012 (in Japanese)
Chervenkova, Velizara: A Pilgrimage toward the Self—Personal Experiences in Intensive Naikan, Annals of Educational Studies, Vol. 18, Osaka University, 2013 (in Japanese)
Chervenkova, Velizara: Rites of Incubation in the Modern World: The Symbolic Experience of Death-Rebirth-Reconnection in Naikan Therapy, World Cultural Psychiatry Research Review, Vol. 9(3), World Association of Cultural Psychiatry, 2014
Dobbins, James C.: Jodo Shinshu—Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan, University of Hawai’i Press, 2002
Faber, Melvin D.: Synchronicity—C.G. Jung, Psychoanalysis and Religion, Praeger Publishers, 1998
Fleischman, Paul R.: The Healing Spirit—Case Studies in Religion and Psychotherapy, SPCK, 1989
Harding, Christopher, F. Iwaki, S. Yoshinaga (ed.): Religion and Psychotherapy in Modern Japan, Routledge, 2015
Hatano, Fumihiko: Why Is the Naikan Method Efficacious?—The Science of Self-Insight, Shinzansha Publisher, 1999 (in Japanese)
Hattori, Sawako: Considerations on Naikan and the Self Time, Proceedings of the 34th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 2011 (in Japanese)
Hiekata, Tomizou: Aesthetics of the Japanese People, Waseda Publishing, 2009 (in Japanese)
Hoffmann, Yoel (transl.): Japanese Death Poems Written by Zen Monks and Haiku Poets on the Verge of Death, Tuttle Publishing, 1986
Ichijo, Nobuko, T. Kawauchi, T. Takemoto: Cure of Bilious Attacks through Naikan Therapy—A Case Report, Proceedings of the 14th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1991 (in Japanese)
Ichikawa, Hiroshi, Yamazaki Award Selection Committee: Phenomenology of Body, Kawade Shobo Shinsha, 1977 (in Japanese)
Ichikawa, Hiroshi: The Structure of Mi—Beyond the Body Theories, Kodansha Gakujutsu Bunko, 1993 (in Japanese)
Igarashi, Kazuo: Naikan Zen—A Possible Suggestion, Proceedings of the 14th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1991 (in Japanese)
Ihara, Shō’ichi: Naikan as Psychotherapy, Paper presented at the 24th Nakan Therapy Workshop in Kyoto (“On the Naikan Role in Psychotherapy”), October 2012, (unpublished; in Japanese)
Ishii, Akira: Self-Transformation within a Week—The Wonder of Naikan Method, Kodansha Sophia Books, 1999 (in Japanese)
Ishii, Akira: Naikan Therapy (in “Personal History and Psychotherapy”), Yasuda Life Welfare Foundation, 2000 (in Japanese)
Ishii, Akira: An Invitation to Naikan, Nishimura Kikaku Shuppan, 2011 (in Japanese)
Itsuki, Hiroyuki: Tariki: Embracing Despair, Discovering Peace, Kodansha Ltd, 2001
Itsuki, Hiroyuki: Self-Power and Other-Power, Chikuma Shobo, 2014 (in Japanese)
Iwaoka, Masashi: Searching for the Origins of Naikan Method—What Ishin Yoshimoto Meant to Say, Soei Publishing, 2002 (in Japanese)
Japan Naikan Association (ed.): Devoted to Naikan—The Life of Ishin Yoshimoto, Japan Naikan Association, 1989 (in Japanese)
Kamei, Katsu’ichiro: Mujōkan—Japanese Culture Research (3), Shinchosha Publishing, 1969 (in Japanese)
Kanamitsu, Toshio: Eastern Wisdom, Naikan—A Method for Soul Cleansing, Kounsha, 1985 (in Japanese)
Kaneko, Daiei: The Meaning of Salvation in the Doctrine of Pure Land Buddhism, The Eastern Buddhist—New Series, Vol.I (1), Eastern Buddhist Society, 1965
Kawahara, Ryuzo: Naikan Therapy, Shinkoh Igaku Shuppansha, 1996 (in Japanese)
Kawahara, Ryuzo (ed.): Clinical Naikan Therapy—Theory and Application, Shinkoh Igaku Shuppansha, 1998 (in Japanese)
Kawahara, Ryuzo, Y. Higashi, Y. Miki (ed.): The Essence of Psychotherapy—Considering the Naikan Therapy, Nippon Hyoron Sha, 1999 (in Japanese)
Kawai, Hayao: Introduction to Psychotherapy: Psychotherapeutic Approaches—Collection IV, Iwanami Shoten, 2009 (in Japanese)
Keel, Hee-Sung: Understanding Shinran—A Dialogical Approach, Asian Humanities Press, 1995
Kellehear, Allan (ed.): The Study of Dying—From Autonomy to Transformation, Cambridge University Press, 2009
Krech, Gregg: Naikan: Gratitude, Grace, and the Japanese Art of Self-Reflection, Stone Bridge Press, 2002
Kurita, Isamu: Reading Zen Master Hakuin—Reviving the Secrets of “Body-Mind Harmonization Method, Naikan”, Shodensha Ogon Bunko, 2001 (in Japanese)
Kusanagi, Masao: Aesthetics of Yūgen, Hanawa Shobo, 1973 (in Japanese)
Kusano, Makoto: Thanatology and Naikan, Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol.7, Japan Naikan Association, 2001a (in Japanese)
Kusano, Makoto: The Theme of Death and Rebirth in Naikan—The World of a Naikan Practitioner in Pictures, Japanese Naikan Medical Association, 2001b (in Japanese)
Kusunoki, Masami: The Mechanism of Naikan, Naikan Training Center, 1980 (in Japanese)
Kusunoki, Masami: Soul Voyage—Naikan Method, Japan Naikan Association, 1983 (in Japanese)
Laird, Martin: A Sunlit Absence—Silence, Awareness, and Contemplation, Oxford University Press, 2011
Lebra, Takie Sugiyama: Japanese Patterns of Behavior, University of Hawaii Press, 1976
Lebra, Takie Sugiyama: The Japanese Self in Cultural Logic, University of Hawaii Press, 2004
Lebra, Takie Sugiyama, W. P. Lebra (ed.): Japanese Culture and Behavior: Selected Readings, University of Hawaii Press, 1974
Machida, Soho: Renegade Monk—Honen and Japanese Pure Land Buddhism, University of California Press, 1999
Maeshiro, Teruaki: Mysteries of the Soul from the Standpoint of Clinical Psychology—A Talk on Naikan, Tokishobo, 2001 (in Japanese)
Maeshiro, Teruaki: Naikan as Psychotherapy, Tokishobo, 2005 (in Japanese)
Maeshiro, Teruaki: Naikan Therapy in Japan: Introspection as a Way of Healing—Introduction to Naikan Therapy, World of Cultural Psychiatry Research Review, Vol. 4(1), World Association of Cultural Psychiatry, 2009
Maeshiro, Teruaki: On the Mi in Mishirabe, retrieved from http://yamato-mahoroba.sakura.ne.jp/blog/2010/03/post-62.html, Yamato Mahoroba-no-Kai (Yamato Naikan Training Center), 2010 (in Japanese)
Maeshiro, Teruaki, M. Hariki: Ishin Yoshimoto—A Brief Life Story (part 1), Proceeedings of the 17th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1994 (in Japanese)
Maeshiro, Teruaki, M. Hariki: Ishin Yoshimoto—A Brief Life Story (part 3), Proceedings of the 18th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1995 (in Japanese)
Matsunami, Kodo (ed.): A Guide to Japanese Buddhism, Japan Buddhist Federation, 2004
Matsuo, Kenji: A History of Japanese Buddhism, Global Oriental, 2007
Matsushita, Muneji, H. Nakamura: On the Combined Application of Naikanistic Psychotherapy and Autogenic Training to Generalized Alopecia associated with Alcohol Syndrome, Proceedings of the 15th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1992 (in Japanese)
McDougall, Joyce: Theaters of the Body—A Psychoanalytic Approach to Psychosomatic Illness, W.W. Norton & Company, 1989
Miki, Junko, Y. Miki: Naikan-Based Counseling and Intensive Naikan—Cure of Five-Year Physical Pain, Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol. 15, Japan Naikan Association, 2009 (in Japanese)
Miki, Yoshihiko: Introduction to Naikan Therapy—The World of Japanese Self-Exploration, Sogensha, 1976 (in Japanese)
Miki, Yoshihiko: The Meaning of “Standing in the Other Person’s Shoes”, Proceedings of the 13th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1990 (in Japanese)
Miki, Yoshihiko, J. Miki: Naikan Work—Healing the Anxiety and Becoming Happy, Futami Shobo, 1998 (in Japanese)
Miki, Yoshihiko, J. Miki: A Naikan Case Study of Young Woman Suffering from Eating Disorder, Osaka University, 2011 (unpublished; in Japanese)
Miki, Yoshihiko, K. Kuroki (co-ed.): Japanese Psychotherapies—Essence and Practice, Tokishobo, 1998 (in Japanese)
Miki, Yoshihiko, T. Maeshiro (ed.): Naikan Therapy Today—A Psychotherapy Born from Japanese Culture, Contemporary Esprit Journal, Vol. 470, Shibundo Publishing, 2006 (in Japanese)
Miki, Yoshihiko, T. Maeshiro, T. Takemoto: (ed.): Naikan Therapy, Minerva Shobo, 2007 (in Japanese)
Miyake, Tadaroku: Being Saved by Naikan—Re-experiencing Love, Bungeisha Co, 2006 (in Japanese)
Miyazaki, Tadao: What is the Origin of Naikan? (part 2), Naikan News, Vol. 12, Japan Naikan Association, 1992 (in Japanese)
Morigami, Shouyou: The Spirit of Wabi, Sabi, and Yūgen—A Superior Consciousness beyond the Western Philosophy, Sakura-no-Hana Shuppan, 2015 (in Japanese)
Morikawa, Keisho: The Nature of Japanese Aesthetics, Asakura Publishing, 1984 (in Japanese)
Motoyama, Yō’ichi: The Essence of Naikan—Answering Dr. Tamura’s Question at the 24th Naikan Congress Symposium, Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol. 8, Japan Naikan Association, 2002 (in Japanese)
Muramatsu, Motonosuke: Zen Buddhism and Naikan—Hints on Living amidst Anxiety and Conflicts, Tokishobo, 1991 (in Japanese)
Muramatsu, Motonosuke: An Invitation to “Door to Self-Discovery”, Proceedings of the 18th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1995 (in Japanese)
Murase, Takao: Fundamental Issues of Naikan-Related Research, Journal of Psychotherapy, Vol. 2(1), Japanese Psychotherapy Association, 1970 (in Japanese)
Murase, Takao: Psychotherapy and Values—An Introduction (Focusing on the Naikanistic Values), Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol. 1, Japan Naikan Association, 1995 (in Japanese)
Murase, Takao: Naikan—Theory and Cultural Relevance (Clinical Psychology of the Self), Seishin Shobo, 1996 (in Japanese)
Nagashima, Masahiro: A Transformative Approach Considered from Its Origin, Proceedings of the 14th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1991 (in Japanese)
Nagashima, Masahiro: From the Standpoint of Naikan Method, Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol. 10, Japan Naikan Association, 2004 (in Japanese)
Nagashima, Masahiro, M. Nagashima: Encountering Oneself through Naikan, Shunjusha Publishing, 2001 (in Japanese)
Nagayama, Kei’ichi, Y. Shimizu: Naikan Method—Theory and Practical Structure, Nippon Hyoron Sha, 2006 (in Japanese)
Nakamura, Hajime: History of Japanese Thought, Kegan Paul, 2002
Neumann, Erich: The Great Mother—An Analysis of the Archetype, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1955
Nishimuta, Hisao: Philosophy of Death, Tokyo Tosho Publishing, 2009 (in Japanese)
Noguchi, Michizō: Human Being as a Primordial Life Form―Theory of Noguchi Gymnastics, Iwanami Shoten, 2003 (in Japanese)
Oda, Takao: Psychotherapy and the Japanese Soul—Living the Myths, Baifukan, 2005 (in Japanese)
Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko: Illness and Culture in Contemporary Japan—An Anthropological View, Cambridge University Press, 1984
Okumura, Nikichi, K. Sato, H. Yamamoto (ed.): Naikan Therapy, Igaku-Shoin, 1972 (in Japanese)
Ozawa-de Silva, Chikako: Psychotherapy and Religion in Japan—The Japanese Introspection Practice of Naikan, Routledge, 2006
Ozawa-de Silva, Chikako: Demystifying Japanese Therapy: An Analysis of Naikan and the Ajase Complex through Buddhist Thought, Ethos (Journal of the Society for Psychological Anthropology), Vol. 35(4), The Society for Psychological Anthropology, 2007
Pilgrim, Richard B.: Buddhism and the Arts of Japan, Anima Books, 1981
Reischauer, August Karl: Studies in Japanese Buddhism, AMS Press, 1970
Reynolds, David K.: The Quiet Therapies—Japanese Pathways to Personal Growth, University of Hawaii Press, 1980
Richie, Donald: A Tractate on Japanese Aesthetics, Stone Bridge Press, 2007
Ritter, Franz: Naikan and the European Psychotherapies, Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol. 8, Japan Naikan Association, 2002 (in Japanese)
Sato, Koji (ed.): Zen Psychotherapy—Naikan Method, Bunkodo, 1972 (in Japanese)
Sato, Mimasa: On the Yoshimoto-Style Naikan Method, Journal of Contemporary Esoteric Buddhism, Vol. 6, Chisan Denboin, 1993 (in Japanese)
Sengoku, Mari: Naikan Therapy and Pure Land Buddhism—The Relationship between Psychotherapy and Buddhism in the United States, Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol. 11, Japan Naikan Association, 2005 (in Japanese)
Sheikh, Anees A., K.S. Sheikh, J. Achterberg (ed.): Healing East and West—Ancient Wisdom and Modern Psychology, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1996
Shepherd, Kathleen M.: The Land and Life of Japan, Edinburgh House Press, 1937
Shimizu, Yasuhiro: Theory of Practical Naikan Interview, Journal of the Japan Naikan Association, Vol. 5, Japan Naikan Association, 1999 (in Japanese)
Shinmura, Taku (ed.): History of Japanese Medicine, Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2006 (in Japanese)
Stanley-Baker, Joan: Japanese Art, Thames and Hudson, 1984
Suzuki, Daisetz T.: Japanese Spirituality, Iwanami Bunko, 1972 (in Japanese)
Suzuki, Daisetz T.: Japanese Spirituality (transl. Norman Waddell), Greenwood Press, 1988
Suzuki, Daisetz T.: Buddha of Infinite Light—The Teachings of Shin Buddhism, the Japanese Way of Wisdom and Compassion, Shambala Publications, 1998
Takemoto, Takahiro (ed.): Meditation Psychotherapies (Theory and Practice of Naikan Therapy), Contemporary Esprit Journal, Vol. 202, Shibundo Publishing, 1984 (in Japanese)
Takemoto, Takahiro: Compositon of Naikan Method, Proceedings of the 12th Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1989 (in Japanese)
Takemoto, Takahiro: Naikan and Medicine, Ibusuki Takemoto Hospital’s Naikan Training Center, 1994 (in Japanese)
Takino, Isao: Naikan as Mourning Work, Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Congress of the Japan Naikan Association, Japan Naikan Association, 1980 (in Japanese)
Tanaka, Hide: Clinical Psychology Research on the Intensive Naikan Experience—An Attempt for Interpretation of Naikan Therapy from Analytical Psychology’s Viewpoint, Osaka University, 2004 (in Japanese)
Tanaka, Kyubun: Philosophizing the Japanese Aestethics—Aware, Yūgen, Sabi, and Iki, Seidosha, 2013 (in Japanese)
Tanni-shō: Notes Lamenting Differences (transl. Ryōsetsu Fujiwara), Ryukoku Translation Center, Rykoku University, 1962
Unno, Mark: Buddhism and Psychotherapy across Cultures—Essays on Theories and Practices, Wisdom Publications Inc, 2006
Usami, Shuue: Thank You for the Tears—From Naikan to Fusatsu-Nembutsu, Senkobo, 1988 (in Japanese)
Uyeda, Isao: Rites of Passage and Purification in Japanese Society: A Study of Shinto Rituals, Self-Transformation and Their Impact upon Japanese Culture, University of Oregon, 1991
Van Gennep, Aronld: Rites of Passage, University of Chicago Press, 1961
Verhagen, Peter J., H.M. Van Praag, J.J.Lopéz-Ibor Jr., et al.: Religion and Psychiatry—Beyond Boundaries, John Wiley&Sons Ltd, 2010
Yalom, Irvin D.: Staring at the Sun: Overcoming the Dread of Death, Piatkus Books, 2008
Yamakuse, Yoji: Heart and Soul of the Japanese (bilingual edition; transl. Michael A. Cooney), IBC Publishing, 2011
Yanagita, Kakusei: Naikan Practice—Training for Self-Consolidation, Inaho Shobo, 1995 (in Japanese)
Yanagita, Kakusei: Psychotherapy of Love, Naikan—A World of Joy and Calmness, Inaho Shobo, 1997 (in Japanese)
Yasuda, Noboru: The Body of the Japanese, Chikuma Shobo, 2014 (in Japanese)
Yatabe, Hidemasa: Aesthetics of Appearance—Body Work Techniques of the Japanese, Chuko Bunko, 2011 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Ishin: Self-Reflection (Naikan), Yamato Gunju Kakou Ltd, 1945 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Ishin: Naikan Method—Forty Years of History, Shunjusha, 1965/1989 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Ishin: Naikan Method, Shunjusha, 1965/2007 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Ishin: Right Up to Establishing Naikan Therapy, Journal of Psychotherapy, Vol. 2(1), Japanese Psychotherapy Association, 1970 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Ishin: A Talk on Naikan, Yasuragi Journal (appendix), Jikohakken-no-Kai, 1977 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Ishin: An Invitation to Naikan, Tokishobo, 1983 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Ishin: Before and After Enlightenment—My Personal Naikan Experiences, Naikan Training Center, 1985 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Ishin: Naikan Daily Calendar—Words by Ishin Yoshimoto, Jikohakken-no-Kai, 2004 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Kiyonobu: Shinobigusa—A Life Dedicated to Naikan, Hirai Shinbikan, 1989 (in Japanese)
Yoshimoto, Masanobu, Y. Motoyama: An Interview, retrieved from https://www.aware-publishing.com/interview-20110612.html, Aware Publishing, 2011 (in Japanese)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Chervenkova, V. (2017). Naikan Therapy—Memento Mori . In: Japanese Psychotherapies. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3126-7_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3126-7_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-10-3125-0
Online ISBN: 978-981-10-3126-7
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)