Abstract
This chapter shifts the focus to the EU’s ability to act normatively, even when acting unilaterally, by analysing the coercion aspect of the use of instruments element. In particular, the discussion examines the EU’s use of economic coercion by leveraging its fisheries market. This type of economic coercion in the area of fisheries has a considerable impact on third States due to the size and characteristics of the EU fisheries market, which can be a strong leverage for the EU. This chapter examines the EU’s normativity in using coercive measures by exploring three types of coercive instruments ordered according to the level of unilateralism involved—implementing multilaterally agreed measures, enforcing conditionality under bilateral agreements and adopting purely autonomous measures. These instruments form part of the EU’s action against illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing or complement it through fighting legal yet unsustainable fishing. The discussion also analyses the EU’s normativity under the legitimacy element with respect to each level of coercive action. These instruments also present a mixture of uses of the exclusive Common Fisheries Policy and the Common Commercial Policy competences. As such, the analysis looks at instruments where the EU has strong powers giving it large freedom to act normatively. Nevertheless, challenges to normativity are still identified relating to the ways in which the EU has put in place some of its coercion frameworks as well as the coherence and consistency in their implementation.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Churchill and Owen 2010, p. 461.
- 3.
EUMOFA 2021, p. 22.
- 4.
Agnew et al. 2009.
- 5.
Leroy et al. 2016.
- 6.
FAO 2001.
- 7.
CCAMLR 1997, paras 5.1–5.45.
- 8.
UN General Assembly 1999a, paras 9–10.
- 9.
FAO 2001.
- 10.
- 11.
- 12.
ILO 2007, para 9.
- 13.
FAO 2016.
- 14.
- 15.
See the negotiations on fisheries subsidies relating to inter alia IUU fishing, e.g. WTO 2018.
- 16.
United Nations 2012, para 170.
- 17.
UN General Assembly 2015, SDG 14.4.
- 18.
Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing, opened for signature 22 November 2009, FAO Doc C 2009/LIM/11 Rev.1, entered into force 5 June 2016 PSMA.
- 19.
Council 2008, recital 3.
- 20.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
- 24.
Chaves 2000, para 20.
- 25.
FAO 1995, para 11.2.4.
- 26.
FAO 2001, para 9.3.
- 27.
Ibid., para 66.
- 28.
Ibid., paras 66, 68.
- 29.
UN General Assembly 1992, Principle 19.
- 30.
UN General Assembly 2001a.
- 31.
Webster 2015, p. 190.
- 32.
- 33.
Doulman and Swan 2012, pp. 68, 125.
- 34.
PSMA, above n. 18, recital 3.
- 35.
Doulman and Swan 2012, p. 42.
- 36.
International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, opened for signature 14 May 1966, 9587 UNTS 63, entered into force 21 March 1969, Article VII.
- 37.
ICCAT 1998.
- 38.
E.g. Council 2001, recital 8.
- 39.
- 40.
Young 2016, p. 215.
- 41.
On the development of that practice and its current state, see Vatsov 2019. The most recent draft agreement negotiated with New Zealand of 7 July 2022 also features such a provision in its TSD chapter.
- 42.
ECJ, Opinion 2/15 Singapore Free Trade Agreement, Opinion, 16 May 2017, EU:C:2017:376.
- 43.
AG Sharpston, Singapore Free Trade Agreement, Opinion, 21 December 2016, EU:C:2016:992, para 489.
- 44.
Ibid., para 490.
- 45.
Ibid., para 491.
- 46.
Ibid.
- 47.
ECJ, Opinion 2/15 Singapore Free Trade Agreement, Opinion, 16 May 2017, EU:C:2017:376, paras 140–146.
- 48.
Ibid., para 147.
- 49.
Ibid., para 161.
- 50.
See Marx et al. 2017, pp. 14–16.
- 51.
European Parliament 2017a, para 26.
- 52.
Scott 2014.
- 53.
- 54.
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_19_201. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 55.
European Commission 2015a.
- 56.
European Commission 2019.
- 57.
European Parliament and Council 2012b, Article 19(1)(e).
- 58.
- 59.
European Commission 2022, recital 22.
- 60.
European Parliament 2018a, para 67.
- 61.
- 62.
Miller et al. 2014, pp. 139–140.
- 63.
Ibid., pp. 141–143.
- 64.
Ibid., p. 144.
- 65.
Cooreman 2017, p. 214.
- 66.
European Commission 2007a, p. 7.
- 67.
Council 2008, Article 4(2).
- 68.
Ibid., Article 12.
- 69.
Ibid., Article 18.
- 70.
Ibid., Article 38(5)–(6).
- 71.
Ibid., Article 38(8)–(9).
- 72.
Ibid., Article 32.
- 73.
Ibid., Articles 32(2) j.o. 31(6)(c).
- 74.
Ibid., Article 33.
- 75.
Ibid., Article 34.
- 76.
Loew C (2020) Japanese legislature passes law to ban import of IUU seafood. https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/japanese-legislature-passes-law-to-curb-iuu-fishing. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 77.
FAO 2001, para 66.
- 78.
Council 2008, recital 32.
- 79.
- 80.
Ibid. See also Leroy et al. 2016, p. 89.
- 81.
See generally Appellate Body, United States—Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, Report, 12 October 1998, AB-1998-4, para 186.
- 82.
Churchill 2019, p. 333.
- 83.
On acquiescence, see ICJ, Case Concerning Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine (Canada v USA), Judgment, 12 October 1984, ICJ Reports 1984, p. 246, para 130; ICJ, Case Concerning the Arbitral Award made by the King of Spain on 23 December 1906 (Honduras v Nicaragua), Judgment, 18 November 1960, ICJ Reports 1960, p. 192, para 213; ICJ, Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v Thailand), 15 June 1962, ICJ Reports 1962, pp. 6, 23.
- 84.
See generally Urrutia 2018.
- 85.
- 86.
European Parliament 2018a, para 62.
- 87.
Leroy et al. 2016, p. 89.
- 88.
Hosch 2016, pp. 34–35.
- 89.
Hosch G (2019) China bottom of illegal fishing index. https://chinadialogueocean.net/7568-china-worst-country-illegal-fishing-index/. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 90.
European Parliament 2013, para 51.
- 91.
Ibid., para 62.
- 92.
Appellate Body, European Communities—Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, Report, 22 May 2014, AB-2014-1, AB-2014-2, paras 5.316–5.339.
- 93.
European Parliament 2013, para 8.
- 94.
See e.g. Client Earth 2017; EJF et al. 2016b, pp. 10–15; Vulperhorst et al. 2017; Druel E (2018) Shocking cases of illegal fishing in EU highlight the need for stronger fisheries control. https://www.euractiv.com/section/agriculture-food/opinion/shocking-cases-of-illegal-fishing-in-eu-highlight-the-need-for-stronger-fisheries-control/. Accessed 2 August 2022; Client Earth et al. 2018; Hosch 2016, pp. 18–19; BBC (2017) Europe vessels dey do illegal fishing for Africa. https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/world-41244064. Accessed 18 July 2020; Clover C (2022) Russia isn’t alone in stealing food—the EU does it too. https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-food-supply-fisheries-tuna-commission-global-shortage-ukraine-russia/. Accessed 2 August 2022; Marto 2019, p. 47.
- 95.
Undercurrent News (2018) Danish vessels caught fishing illegally, claims Greenpeace. https://www.undercurrentnews.com/2018/03/16/danish-vessels-caught-fishing-illegally-claims-greenpeace/?utm_source=Undercurrent+News+Alerts&utm_campaign=935c9d01b4-Europe_briefing_Mar_16_2018&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_feb55e2e23-935c9d01b4-91343769. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 96.
Undercurrent News (2018) WWF urges ICCAT to take action on illegal European bluefin trade. https://www.undercurrentnews.com/2018/11/12/wwf-urges-iccat-to-take-action-on-illegal-european-bluefin-trade/?utm_source=Undercurrent+News+Alerts&utm_campaign=4b9cf70375-Europe_briefing_Nov_12_2018&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_feb55e2e23-4b9cf70375-91343769. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 97.
Miller et al. 2014, p. 143.
- 98.
EJF et al. 2016a.
- 99.
- 100.
European Commission (1991) Press Release IP-91-582. http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-91-582_en.htm. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 101.
European Parliament and Council 2012a, Article 2(a).
- 102.
ITLOS, Request for an advisory opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission (SRFC) (No 21), Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015, p. 4.
- 103.
Hayashi 1993.
- 104.
Ibid.
- 105.
European Commission 2011b, pp. 7, 9, 12.
- 106.
Vatsov 2017, p. 302.
- 107.
Vatsov 2016.
- 108.
- 109.
European Commission 2011b, p. 70.
- 110.
Ibid., 9–10.
- 111.
Vatsov 2017, p. 302.
- 112.
On the factual background of the dispute, see Vatsov 2017.
- 113.
European Parliament and Council 2012a, Article 1(1).
- 114.
Interestingly, the Regulation does not explicitly state that these sets of norms must be binding on both the EU and the particular third country.
- 115.
Vatsov 2017, p. 302.
- 116.
Kunoy 2012, p. 692.
- 117.
PCIJ, Railway Traffic between Lithuania and Poland, Advisory Opinion, 15 October 1931, PCIJ Series A/B, No. 42, pp. 108, 116; ICJ, International Status of South-West Africa, Advisory Opinion, 11 July 1950, ICJ Reports 1950, pp. 128, 140.
- 118.
Arbitral tribunal, Lac Lanoux Arbitration (France v Spain), 16 November 1957, Reports of International Arbitral Awards, vol XII, pp. 281, 317; ICJ, North Sea Continental Shelf (Germany/Denmark; Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, 20 February 1969, ICJ Reports 1969, p. 3, para 87. See also Shearer 1990, p. 244.
- 119.
Vatsov 2017, p. 301.
- 120.
United Nations 1979, pp. 92–93, para 42.
- 121.
European Commission 2011b, p. 16.
- 122.
Ibid.
- 123.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, opened for signature 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 397, entered into force 16 November 1994, Annex VIII, Article 1.
- 124.
Ibid., Articles 2 and 3.
- 125.
Ibid., Article 5(1).
- 126.
Ibid., Article 5(2).
- 127.
Ibid., Article 5(3). This book paragraph draws on an earlier version of the text in Vatsov 2017, p. 301.
- 128.
- 129.
European Parliament 2018b, para AC.
- 130.
This view was confirmed to me in an email on 18 April 2016 by the office of MEP Isabelle Thomas, who authored that paragraph.
- 131.
Vatsov 2017, p. 303.
- 132.
Ibid.
- 133.
The Kingdom of Denmark in Respect of the Faroe Islands (2013) Statement of Claim, Kingdom of Denmark in Respect of the Faroe Islands v European Union (Coercive Economic Measures in Respect of the Shared Stock of Atlanto-Scandian Herring), para 2.
- 134.
Vatsov 2017, p. 303.
- 135.
European Commission are taking extreme negotiating, p. 7.
- 136.
Vatsov 2017, p. 303.
- 137.
Appellate Body, United States—Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, Report, 29 April 1996, AB-1996-1, paras 19–21; Appellate Body, United States—Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, Report, 12 October 1998, AB-1998-4, para 144.
- 138.
European Commission 2011a, p. 5.
- 139.
Even if the measures were compatible with WTO law, there is nothing in Regulation 793/2013 on whether they are compatible with the UNCLOS and the UNFSA, which seems to have been assumed.
- 140.
European Commission 2011a, p. 2.
- 141.
Ibid., pp. 13, 16.
- 142.
Vatsov 2017, p. 304.
- 143.
Agreed Record on a Fisheries Agreement between the European Union, the Faroe Islands and Norway on the Management of Mackerel in the North-East Atlantic from 2014 to 2018, signed 12 March 2014. https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/eea38124b666486a92c952c1a8e9f615/makrellavtale2014.pdf. Accessed 2 August 2022; Tallaksen E (2014) Mackerel deal gets bitter reception as TAC set at 1.24m, Faroes get 12.6%. http://www.undercurrentnews.com/2014/03/13/mackerel-deal-gets-bitter-reception-as-tac-set-at-1-24m-faroes-get-12-6/. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 144.
Undercurrent News (2014) Iceland: EU, Faroe Islands, Norway take full responsibility for overfishing. http://www.undercurrentnews.com/2014/03/13/iceland-eu-faroe-islands-norway-take-full-responsibility-for-overfishing/. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 145.
European Commission 2011a, 3.
- 146.
Ramsden N (2013) Polar Seafood prepared for Greenlandic industry shift. http://www.undercurrentnews.com/2013/04/15/polar-seafood-prepared-for-greenlandic-industry-shift/#.UePQ321LpTg. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 147.
Tallaksen E (2014) Greenland ups 2014 mackerel quota by 66% to 100,000t. http://www.undercurrentnews.com/2014/02/24/greenland-ups-2014-mackerel-quota-by-66-to-100000t/. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 148.
Tallaksen E (2014) Norway: EU, Iceland demand to fish in Greenland broke mackerel talks. http://www.undercurrentnews.com/2014/03/06/norway-eu-iceland-demand-to-fish-in-greenland-broke-mackerel-talks/. Accessed 2 August 2022.
- 149.
Holland J (2021) Europêche calls for action against Norway, Faroes for overfishing mackerel. https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/eu-fishers-call-for-action-against-norway-faroes-for-overfishing-mackerel. Accessed 2 August 2022; FIS-NET (2022) Unilateral quotas on mackerel established by Norway and Faroe Islands. http://www.fis-net.com/fis/worldnews/worldnews.asp?monthyear=6-2022&day=28&id=118642&l=e&country=0&special=0&ndb=1&df=0. Accessed 2 August 2022.
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Vatsov, M. (2023). Challenges to the EU’s Normativity in Multileveled Coercive Action. In: Fishing Power Europe. Global Europe: Legal and Policy Issues of the EU’s External Action, vol 3. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-583-6_6
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