Abstract
Indigenous peoples all over the world struggle to maintain their identities, autonomy, and dignity as they live with the effects of their displacement and/or colonization. These vulnerable groups suffer disproportionate impacts from nuclear activity; whether related to uranium mining, nuclear power, nuclear weapons testing, or the fear of impending nuclear disaster. Their struggles are each historically and geopolitically unique, but they could all benefit from certain improvements in the system of international legal instruments that oblige their protection by nation States. This chapter discusses certain weaknesses in international law and proposes modifications that would help mitigate them.
Pilehvar Law, a law firm in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. www.pilehvar.com.
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Notes
- 1.
This chapter uses nation, country, and State interchangeably. Note the distinction between ‘State’ with a capital ‘S’ that refers to sovereign nations versus ‘state’ with a lowercase ‘s’ that refers to official subnational polities within a nation.
- 2.
Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (7 July 2017), UN Doc A/CONF.229/2017/8 (7 July 2017), preamble, para 7.
- 3.
Joansen 2016, 16.
- 4.
Id. at 16.
- 5.
World Information Service on Energy 2010.
- 6.
Id.
- 7.
See, e.g., Gunter 2000, 40 (‘Although the Aborigines in Australia, the Indians in North and South America, and the Maori in New Zealand, among others, have been listed as specific examples of indigenous peoples, the concept would also seem to have obvious relevance for the Kurds.’).
- 8.
See, e.g., Zambelis 2011.
- 9.
See, e.g., Erlich 2015.
- 10.
Id.
- 11.
McDowall 2004, 2.
- 12.
World Nuclear Association 2019.
- 13.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs 2020.
- 14.
See, e.g., Information Office of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China 1999.
- 15.
International Labour Conference 1989, at 4.
- 16.
Information Office of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China 1999.
- 17.
See Sehgal 2014, 188.
- 18.
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1 July 1968), 729 UNTS 161.
- 19.
See Sehgal 2014, 191 (one survey in Kashmir found that above sixty percent supported Kashmir’s independence).
- 20.
Id. at 190.
- 21.
Ishtar 2003.
- 22.
Id. at 289.
- 23.
Id.
- 24.
Id.
- 25.
Carter et al. 2006, 3.
- 26.
Green 2017.
- 27.
Al Jazeera 2013.
- 28.
Archeology Contracts Office, University of Cape Town 2010.
- 29.
Department of Environmental Affairs, Republic of South Africa 2017.
- 30.
Id.
- 31.
Atomic Heritage Foundation 2014.
- 32.
McCannon 2013, 244–45.
- 33.
Id. at 245.
- 34.
Id.
- 35.
Id.
- 36.
Id. at 270–73.
- 37.
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 13 September 2007, UNGA Res. 61/295, UN Doc. A/RES/61/295, Article 46 [hereinafter UN DRIP].
- 38.
Id. at Article 43.
- 39.
See, e.g., Convention Concerning the Protection and Integration of Indigenous and Other Tribal and Semi-Tribal Populations in Independent Countries, Article 1(b), 26 June 1957, 328 UNTS 247 [hereinafter ILO 107]. See also Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (27 June 1989), 1640 UNTS 383 [hereinafter ILO 169].
- 40.
Id. at Article 1(1)(b).
- 41.
Id. at para 27.
- 42.
Id. at para 29 (asserting that the broad range of geopolitical circumstances under which existing populations have existed and/or been displaced throughout history makes difficult the formulation of one definition to encompass all indigenous populations).
- 43.
Id.
- 44.
Id. at para 30.
- 45.
UN DRIP, supra note 39 at Article 9 (‘Indigenous peoples and individuals have the right to belong to an indigenous community or nation, in accordance with the traditions and customs of the community or nation concerned. No discrimination of any kind may arise from the exercise of such a right.’).
- 46.
UN DRIP, supra note 39 at Article 33 (‘Indigenous peoples have the right to determine their own identity or membership in accordance with their customs and traditions. This does not impair the right of indigenous individuals to obtain citizenship of the States in which they live. Indigenous peoples have the right to determine the structures and to select the membership of their institutions in accordance with their own procedures.’).
- 47.
UNGA, Press Release GA/10612, General Assembly Adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples; ‘Major Step Forward’ Towards Human Rights for All, Says President, 107th and 108th meetings (13 September 2007) [hereinafter UN DRIP Press Release] (Iran and Turkey deny presence of indigenous peoples).
See also International Labour Conference 1989, 3 (China denies presence of indigenous populations).
- 48.
UN DRIP, supra note 39 at Article 18.
- 49.
See, e.g., id. at Article 10 (forcible removal from land), 11 (maintain historical sites), 19 (legislation that may affect indigenous peoples), 28 (restitution), 29 (storage of hazardous material on indigenous land), 30 (military activities), and 32 (right to develop land and minerals).
- 50.
UN Human Rights Council, Res. 6/36, Expert Mechanism on the rights of indigenous peoples, 34th meeting (14 December 2007).
- 51.
Id. at para 9.
- 52.
Id. at para 2.
- 53.
UN Human Rights Council, Res. A/HRC/42/L.25, Human rights and indigenous peoples: mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, 42nd Session (26 September 2019).
- 54.
Id. at para 1.
- 55.
Id.
- 56.
Id. at para 1(b). Reports can be emailed to: indigenous@ohchr.org or mailed to: Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples c/o OHCHR-UNOG Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Palais Wilson, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland. Check for updates and instructions on the official website at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/IPeoples/SRIndigenousPeoples/Pages/SubmitInformation.aspx.
- 57.
Id. at para 1(j).
- 58.
ECOSOC Res. E/RES/2000/22, Establishment of a Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, 45th Meeting (28 July 2000).
- 59.
Id. at para 2.
- 60.
Id. at paras 4–5.
- 61.
Id. at para 6.
- 62.
ECOSOC Res. E/RES/1996/31, Consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations, 49th Meeting (25 July 1996).
- 63.
Id. at paras 28–32.
- 64.
Id. at para 32 (‘The Committee on [NGOs] shall make recommendations to the [ECOSOC] as to which organizations in general consultative status should make an oral presentation to the Council and on which items they should be heard. Such organizations shall be entitled to make one statement to the Council, subject to the approval of the Council…’).
- 65.
Id. at paras 28 & 32.
- 66.
Id. at para 31(d)–(e).
- 67.
UN Integrated Civil Society Organizations System (2020) Participation Database: AARP Profile,
https://esango.un.org/civilsociety/showProfileDetail.do?method=showProfileDetails&profileCode=1095.
- 68.
UN Integrated Civil Society Organizations System (2020) Participation Database: International Indian Treaty Council Profile, https://esango.un.org/civilsociety/showProfileDetail.do?method=showProfileDetails&tab=1&profileCode=727.
- 69.
To check current numbers of indigenous representative organizations in any ECOSOC consultative status, use the advanced search function of the ECOSOC’s integrated Civil Society Organizations System at https://esango.un.org/civilsociety/displayConsultativeStatusSearch.do?method=search&sessionCheck=false, using ‘indigenous peoples organization’ under the category of ‘Organization’s type’ as the only search criterion.
- 70.
UN Human Rights Council, Res. A/HRC/21/24, Annual report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and reports of the Office of the High Commissioner and the Secretary-General, 21st Session, at paras 10–11 (2 July 2012).
- 71.
Id. at para 10(a).
- 72.
Id.
- 73.
Id. at para 10(b).
- 74.
Id. at para 11.
- 75.
UNGA Res. A/Res/71/321, Enhancing the participation of indigenous peoples’ representatives and institutions in meetings of relevant United Nations bodies on issues affecting them, 71st Session, at para 5 (21 September 2017).
- 76.
UNGA Res. A/C.3/74/L.19, Agenda item 67 (a)—Rights of indigenous peoples, 74th Session, at para 38 (17 October 2019).
- 77.
Indigenous participation was not noted in the list of agenda items for the UN General Assembly 75th Session, https://www.un.org/en/ga/info/meetings/75schedule.shtml.
- 78.
UN Human Rights Council, Res. A/HRC/21/24, Ways and means of promoting participation at the United Nations of indigenous peoples’ representatives on issues affecting them, 21st Session, at paras 56–66 (2 July 2012).
- 79.
Id. at para 56.
- 80.
Id. at paras 61–65.
- 81.
Goodin 2010, 132.
- 82.
UN Commission on Human Rights, Res. E/CN.4/RES/1995/32, Establishment of a working group of the Commission on Human Rights to elaborate a draft declaration in accordance with para 5 of General Assembly resolution 49/214 of 23 December 1994, 53rd meeting, annex (3 March 1995).
- 83.
See supra, note 59.
- 84.
UN DRIP Press Release, supra note 57.
- 85.
See Jenny Macklin MP (3 April 2009) Statement on the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/Australia_official_statement_endorsement_UNDRIP.pdf. Accessed 31 May 2020.
- 86.
See Aboriginal Affairs and N. Dev. Canada (12 November 2010) Canada’s Statement of Support on the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. https://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/canada-endorses-un-declaration-rights-indigenous-peoples.
- 87.
UN Economic and Social Council, Press Release HR/5012, Secretary General Calls on Member States to Promote Development While Respecting Indigenous Values, Customs, as Permanent UN Forum Opens Two-week Session, 9th Session (19 April 2010).
- 88.
See Remarks At The White House Tribal Nations Conference, 2010 Daily Comp. Pres. Doc. 201001076 (16 December 2010), https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2010/12/16/remarks-president-white-house-tribal-nations-conference. See also State Department, Announcement of U.S. Support for the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2010), https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/srgia/154553.htm (offering a review of the U.S. position on the Declaration).
- 89.
UN DRIP, supra note 39, at Article 43.
- 90.
Carter and Weiner 2011, 90: ‘Even if a commitment is not legally binding, it may still carry force as a “political commitment”. Governments may develop expectations of compliance with political commitments, invoke them in public debate to marshal support, and even impose sanctions for their violation.’
- 91.
UN Human Rights Council, Res. A/HRC/RES/5/1, Institution-building of the United Nations Human Rights Council, 9th meeting, at annex I (18 June 2007).
- 92.
Id. at annex para 15.
- 93.
Id. at annex para 32.
- 94.
Id. at annex para 34.
- 95.
UN Human Rights Council, A/HRC/OM/7/1, Report of the Human Rights Council on its seventh organizational meeting, 7th organizational meeting (4 April 2013) (regarding ‘the decision of Israel, the State under review, not to participate in the universal periodic review on the scheduled date during the fifteenth session of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review’).
- 96.
International Labour Organization 2009, 187.
- 97.
See, in general, International Labour Organization 2009.
- 98.
National Human Rights Commission, Nepal 2019, 16.
- 99.
Constitution of Nepal, Article 51 (j) (8) (‘The State shall pursue the following policies… to make the indigenous nationalities participate in decisions concerning that community by making special provisions for opportunities and benefits in order to ensure the right of these nationalities to live with dignity, along with their identity, and protect and promote traditional knowledge, skill, culture, social tradition and experience of the indigenous nationalities and local communities.).
- 100.
See Gilbert 2019.
- 101.
International Labour Organization 2019, n. 17.
- 102.
E.g., The Norwegian Supreme Court, Stjernøy Reindeer Husbandry district and Johan J. Sara et al. versus the Finnmark Estate, 28 September 2016, HR-2016-2030-A.
- 103.
Ravna 2020, 20.
- 104.
Organization of American States (OAS), American Convention on Human Rights ‘Pact of San Jose, Costa Rica (B-32) (22 Nov. 1969), http://www.oas.org/dil/treaties_B-32_American_Convention_on_Human_Rights.htm.
- 105.
Id. at Article 33(b).
- 106.
Id. at Article 61.
- 107.
Id. at Articles 48 & 50.
- 108.
Organization of American States (OAS), American Convention on Human Rights—signatories and ratifications, http://www.oas.org/dil/treaties_B-32_American_Convention_on_Human_Rights_sign.htm.
- 109.
See, in general, International Labour Organization 2009; e.g. IACtHR, Case of the Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, Judgment (29 March 2006) (recognizing indigenous ancestral property rights).
- 110.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, PR-24/2020, Press Release, State Of Argentina Is Responsible For The Violation Of The Rights To Indigenous Community Property, Cultural Identity, A Healthy Environment, Food And Water. Case Of The Indigenous Communities Members Of The Lhaka Honhat (Our Land) Association V. Argentina, http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/comunicados/cp_24_2020_eng.pdf.
- 111.
See, e.g., supra n. 119 (Trinidad and Tobago denunciated the ACHR over the death penalty issue in 1998 (effective 26 May 1999). Venezuela denunciated in 2012, but ratified again in 2019. Peru withdrew from the Inter-American Court’s jurisdiction in 1999, but withdrew its denunciation in 2001).
- 112.
Organization of African Unity (OAU), African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (27 June 1981), CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 ILM 58 (1982), https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201520/volume-1520-I-26363-English.pdf.
- 113.
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Ratification Table (Morocco has not ratified), https://www.achpr.org/ratificationtable?id=49.
- 114.
African Charter, supra n. 123 at Article 45.
- 115.
Organization of African Unity (OAU), Protocol to the African Charter on Human And Peoples’ Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 25 Jan. 2004, https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/36393-treaty-0019_-_protocol_to_the_african_charter_on_human_and_peoplesrights_on_the_establishment_of_an_african_court_on_human_and_peoples_rights_e.pdf.
- 116.
Id. at Article 5.
- 117.
Id. at Articles 5(3) & 34(6).
- 118.
African Union (AU), List of countries which have signed, ratified/acceded to the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (15 June 2017), https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/36393-sl-protocol_to_the_african_charter_on_human_and_peoplesrights_on_the_estab.pdf.
- 119.
AfCtHPR, Judgment: African Commission On Human And Peoples’ Rights V. Republic Of Kenya, Application No. 006/2012 (26 May 2017), https://en.african-court.org/images/Cases/Judgment/Application%20006-2012%20-%20African%20Commission%20on%20Human%20and%20Peoples%e2%80%99%20Rights%20v.%20the%20Republic%20of%20Kenya..pdf.
- 120.
Id. at para 227.
- 121.
Id. at para 131.
- 122.
Id. at para 169.
- 123.
Id. at para 190.
- 124.
Bhalla 2020.
- 125.
Council of Europe (COE), Chart of signatures and ratifications of Treaty 005: Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/005/signatures.
- 126.
Council of Europe (COE), Chart of signatures and ratifications of Treaty 194: Protocol No. 14 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, amending the control system of the Convention, https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/194/signatures?p_auth=jqgGgIhZ.
- 127.
Kovács 2017, 795.
- 128.
Council of Europe (COE), Chart of signatures and ratifications of Treaty 009: Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/009/signatures?p_auth=jqgGgIhZ.
- 129.
Council of Europe (COE), Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as amended by Protocol No. 11 (20 March 1952), at Article 1, https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/090000168006377c.
- 130.
Kovács 2017, 796.
- 131.
Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency (29 July 1957), at Article III(B)(4), https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/statute.pdf.
- 132.
International Atomic Energy Agency, List of Member States (5 February 2019), https://www.iaea.org/about/governance/list-of-member-states.
- 133.
Id.; Compare to NPT member list, supra, n. 20.
- 134.
International Atomic Energy Agency (2016) IAEA Safety Standards for protecting peoples and the environment: Governmental, Legal and Regulatory Framework for Safety, No. GSR Part 1 (Rev. 1), STI/PUB/1713, at Req. 36, https://www.iaea.org/publications/10883/governmental-legal-and-regulatory-framework-for-safety.
- 135.
International Atomic Energy Agency (2018) IAEA Safety Standards for protecting peoples and the environment: Regulatory Control of Radioactive Discharges to the Environment, No. GSG-9, STI/PUB/1818, at n. 21, https://www.iaea.org/publications/12197/regulatory-control-of-radioactive-discharges-to-the-environment.
- 136.
International Atomic Energy Agency 2019, 3.
- 137.
International Atomic Energy Agency 2020.
- 138.
Id.
- 139.
Id.
- 140.
SC Res 1441 (2002), see Press Release SC/7564, Security Council Holds Iraq in ‘Material Breach’ of Disarmament Obligations, Offers Final Chance to Comply, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 1441 (8 Nov. 2002), https://www.un.org/press/en/2002/SC7564.doc.htm.
- 141.
Id. (‘The representative of the United States noted that, while primary responsibility rested with the Council for the disarmament of Iraq, nothing in the resolution constrained any Member State from acting to defend itself against the threat posed by that country, or to enforce United Nations resolutions protecting world peace and security.’).
- 142.
See, e.g., Rinne 2020.
- 143.
See supra n. 142, at Article II.
- 144.
See supra n. 145, at req. 36.
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Pilehvar, Esq, T.M. (2021). The Global Impact of Nuclear Activity on Indigenous Peoples and How International Law Falls Short in Protecting Them. In: Black-Branch, J.L., Fleck, D. (eds) Nuclear Non-Proliferation in International Law - Volume VI. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-463-1_7
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