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Enforced Sterilization and Other Forms of Reproductive Violence as Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes

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Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law

Part of the book series: International Criminal Justice Series ((ICJS,volume 29))

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Abstract

This chapter addresses the potentials of the ICC Statute to respond to negative forms of reproductive violence under the umbrella of crimes against humanity and war crimes. It first examines the crime of enforced sterilization, which has played no role in the practice of any modern international criminal court thus far. There appears to be a reluctance on the part of prosecutors to charge acts causing permanent loss of reproductive capacity explicitly as enforced sterilization. This is problematic because it erases the unique harm suffered by the victims from the narrative of international trials. The second part of the chapter addresses other forms of reproductive violence not explicitly criminalized. It is argued that the ICC Statute offers a broad array of more general crimes which can and should be used to prosecute acts such as forced abortion and forced contraception. The analysis also highlights that the lack of distinction between the concepts of sexual and reproductive violence in the ICC Statute is problematic and proposes amendments in this regard.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Grey 2017, p 919; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 529; Zimmermann and Geiß 2018, marginal no 155.

  2. 2.

    See De Brouwer 2005, p 146; La Haye 2000, p 195; Schwarz 2019, p 266; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 529; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1079.

  3. 3.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2 and Chap. 4, Sect. 4.4.1.2.

  4. 4.

    See Chap. 5, Sect. 5.3.2.

  5. 5.

    Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Court 1997b.

  6. 6.

    Women’s Caucus for Gender Justice 1997. See also Glasius 2006, p 88.

  7. 7.

    In fact, the Holy See did not object to the crime of enforced sterilization, unlike other crimes in the newly-added category of sexualized and gender-based crimes, see Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Court 1997a.

  8. 8.

    Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Court 1998.

  9. 9.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999a.

  10. 10.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999b: “The perpetrator coerced a person to be sterilized.”

  11. 11.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999c: “The perpetrator caused a person to be sterile under circumstances which constituted coercion.”

  12. 12.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999d: “The agent sterilizes a person without his or her consent.”

  13. 13.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999e, p 72.

  14. 14.

    See also Hall et al. 2016, marginal no 67.

  15. 15.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999f, p 7, footnote 11.

  16. 16.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999g, p 3.

  17. 17.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 2000a; Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 2000b.

  18. 18.

    Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999h.

  19. 19.

    Statute of the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in the Courts of Dili, Regulation no. 2000/15 on the Establishment of Panels With Exclusive Jurisdiction Over Serious Criminal Offences, UN Doc. UNTAET/REG/2000/15, 6 June 2000, Section 5.1(g) (crimes against humanity), Section 6.1(b)(xxii) and (e)(vi) (war crimes).

  20. 20.

    Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, opened for signature 27 June 2014, Article 28C(1)(g) and (h) (crimes against humanity), Article 28D(b)(xxiii) and (e)(vi) (war crimes).

  21. 21.

    Law no. 05/L-053 by the Assembly of Republic of Kosovo on Specialist Chambers and Specialist Prosecutor’s Office, 3 August 2015, Article 14(1)(b)(xxii) and (d)(vi).

  22. 22.

    Accord Entre le Gouvernement de la République du Sénégal et l’Union Africaine sur la Création de Chambres Africaines Extraordinaires au Sein des Juridictions Sénégalaises, 22 August 2012, Article 6(a).

  23. 23.

    Agreement Between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone, 2178 UNTS 137, 16 January 2002 (SCSL Statute), Article 2(g).

  24. 24.

    Ibid., Articles 3, 4.

  25. 25.

    ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 7(1)(g)-5, Article 8(2)(b)(xxii)-5; Article 8(2)(e)(vi)-5.

  26. 26.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 268; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 544; Zimmermann and Geiß 2018, marginal no 155.

  27. 27.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 268; Zimmermann and Geiß 2018, marginal no 155.

  28. 28.

    See Zimmermann and Geiß 2018, marginal no 155.

  29. 29.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 268; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 544.

  30. 30.

    See De Brouwer 2005, pp 146–147; Hall et al. 2016, marginal no 67; Schwarz 2019, pp 270–271; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal nos 536–539.

  31. 31.

    See Schabas 2016, p 192.

  32. 32.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 269; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 532.

  33. 33.

    See De Brouwer 2005, pp 146–147; La Haye 2000, pp 195–196; Zimmermann and Geiß 2018, marginal no 155.

  34. 34.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 270.

  35. 35.

    See Cottier and Mzee 2016, marginal no 729; Schwarz 2019, p 269; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 533; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1079; Zimmermann and Geiß 2018, marginal no 155.

  36. 36.

    See Cottier and Mzee 2016, marginal no 729; Schwarz 2019, p 269; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 533.

  37. 37.

    See La Haye 2000, p 196.

  38. 38.

    See La Haye 2000, pp 195–196; Schwarz 2019, p 272.

  39. 39.

    See Ambos 2013, p 103; Hall et al. 2016, marginal no 67.

  40. 40.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 272.

  41. 41.

    See De Brouwer 2005, p 146; La Haye 2000, p 196. See also Hall et al. 2016, marginal no 67, pointing out even non-permanent measures could have devastating effects and violate human rights.

  42. 42.

    See Ambos 2018, § 7 marginal no 212; Schwarz 2019, pp 269–270.

  43. 43.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 269.

  44. 44.

    See ibid.

  45. 45.

    See Ambos 2011, p 294; Cottier and Mzee 2016, marginal no 730.

  46. 46.

    ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 7(1)(g)-5, no. 2; Article 8(2)(b)(xxii)-5, no. 2; Article 8(2)(e)(vi)-5, no. 2.

  47. 47.

    See Chap. 5, Sects. 5.5.3.2 and 5.5.3.3.

  48. 48.

    See also Schwarz 2019, p 273.

  49. 49.

    La Haye 2000, p 196.

  50. 50.

    See also Cottier and Mzee 2016, marginal no 730.

  51. 51.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.6.

  52. 52.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Francis Kirimi Muthaura, Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and Mohammed Hussein Ali, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 23 January 2012, ICC-01/09-02/11 (Kenyatta et al. 2012), para 254. The charge was not confirmed, see also this chapter, Sect. 6.3.1.1.

  53. 53.

    See Cottier and Mzee 2016, marginal no 737.

  54. 54.

    See Chap. 4, Sect. 4.4.2 and 4.4.3.

  55. 55.

    See generally Grey forthcoming, pp 24–32.

  56. 56.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 July 2002) (ICC Statute), Article 7(1)(f).

  57. 57.

    Ibid., Article 7(1)(k).

  58. 58.

    Ibid., Article 8(2)(a)(ii).

  59. 59.

    Ibid., Article 8(2)(a)(iii).

  60. 60.

    Ibid., Article 8(2)(b)(x).

  61. 61.

    Ibid., Article 8(2)(b)(xxi) and Article 8(2)(c)(ii).

  62. 62.

    Ibid., Article 8(2)(c)(i).

  63. 63.

    Ibid., Article 7(1)(k). See De Vos 2016.

  64. 64.

    ICC Statute, above n 56, Article 7(1)(g) (“of comparable gravity”), Article 8(2)(b)(xxii) (“also constituting a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions”), Article 8(2)(e)(vi) (“also constituting a serious violation of article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions”).

  65. 65.

    Ibid., Article 7(1)(h).

  66. 66.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.1.2.

  67. 67.

    See generally Ambos 2013, pp 103–104; De Brouwer 2005, pp 147–152; Grey 2014, 2019, pp 291–295; Hall et al. 2016, marginal no 68; Schwarz 2019, pp 279–288.

  68. 68.

    ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 7(1)(g)-6, no. 1; Article 8(2)(b)(xxii)-6, no. 1; Article 8(2)(e)(vi)-6, no. 1.

  69. 69.

    Oosterveld 2005, p 124. On the categorization of forced nudity as an act of sexual violence, see also ICTR, Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T, para 688. However, ICC Pre-Trial Chamber III, in its decision on the application for an arrest warrant against Bemba, held that there were no reasonable grounds to believe that evidence of forced nudity constituted another form of sexual violence of comparable gravity, though without giving reasons, see ICC, Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Arrest Warrant Decision, 10 June 2008, ICC-01/05-01/08, paras 39–40.

  70. 70.

    Kenyatta et al. 2012, above n 52, para 254.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., para 266. See also para 265: “not every act of violence which targets parts of the body commonly associated with sexuality should be considered an act of sexual violence”.

  72. 72.

    Ibid., para 270. The Prosecutor later attempted to re-characterize the charges at the trial stage, but withdrew the case before the judges decided on this motion.

  73. 73.

    See e.g. Grey 2014, pp 282–283; Grey 2019, pp 292–294; Hall et al. 2016, marginal no 68; Hayes 2016, pp 41–42; Schwarz 2019, pp 321–322.

  74. 74.

    Schwarz 2019, pp 281–288. Similarly, see Hall et al. 2016, marginal no 68.

  75. 75.

    United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1998, para 21. This was also referred to by the ICC, Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Judgment, 4 February 2021, para 2716, footnote 7163.

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    Ibid., para 22.

  78. 78.

    De Brouwer 2005, pp 147–151. See also Grey 2014, p 284, criticizing the “overreliance on penetration as the determinative factor”.

  79. 79.

    Ambos 2013, pp 103–104. Similarly, see Schwarz 2019, pp 338–342.

  80. 80.

    Grey 2019, p 321. See also Grey 2014.

  81. 81.

    The Hague Principles on Sexual Violence, December 2019 (Hague Principles), https://4genderjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/The-Hague-Principles-on-Sexual-Violence.pdf (accessed 24 October 2020).

  82. 82.

    Ibid., p 7.

  83. 83.

    See Chap. 1, Sects. 1.3.2 and 1.3.3 and Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.1.

  84. 84.

    See also The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014, p 3.

  85. 85.

    See e.g. De Brouwer and Ruiz 2019, p 170.

  86. 86.

    See e.g. Short 2003, p 504.

  87. 87.

    See generally Grey 2017. See also De Vos 2019, pp 398–400.

  88. 88.

    Stahn 2019, p 64.

  89. 89.

    Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1077.

  90. 90.

    Schabas 2016, p 192.

  91. 91.

    See this chapter, Sect. 6.2.2.1.

  92. 92.

    See Chap. 5, Sects. 5.5.3 and 5.5.4.

  93. 93.

    See Chap. 5, Sect. 5.5.1.2.

  94. 94.

    See also Ambos 2013, p 103; Schwarz 2019, p 277; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1080.

  95. 95.

    See also Grey 2019, pp 318–321; Schwarz 2019, p 347.

  96. 96.

    See also Ambos 2011, p 288: “Das geschützte Rechtsgut erweist sich gerade bei den Sexualdelikten häufig als einziges rationales Kriterium, um den genauen Anwendungsbereich einer Strafvorschrift zu bestimmen.” (Especially with regard to sexual offenses, the protected legal good often proves to be the only rational criterion to define the exact scope of application of a criminal provision.)

  97. 97.

    On sexual autonomy in the context of the crime of rape, see Dowds 2020, pp 143–144, highlighting the positive and negative facets of sexual autonomy.

  98. 98.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.1.2.

  99. 99.

    Schwarz 2019, pp 267–268.

  100. 100.

    See Chap. 5, Sect. 5.4.2.

  101. 101.

    Copelon 1994; Grey 2017.

  102. 102.

    See with regard to the “rape as a weapon of war”-narrative, Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2.4.2.

  103. 103.

    See also Rubio-Marín 2009, pp 80–81; Rubio-Marín 2012, p 85.

  104. 104.

    See also Grey forthcoming, pp 25–27.

  105. 105.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2012, para 143.

  106. 106.

    ICTY, Prosecutor v Miroslav Kvočka, Dragoljub Prcać, Milojica Kos, Mlađo Radić and Zoran Žigić, Judgment, 2 November 2001, IT-98-30/1-T, para 180, footnote 343.

  107. 107.

    See De Brouwer 2005, p 150; Koenig and Askin 2000, p 17; Hague Principles, above n 81, p 8.

  108. 108.

    Hague Principles, above n 81, pp 8, 16.

  109. 109.

    ICC Statute, above n 56, Article 7(1)(k); De Vos 2016. On the decision, see this chapter, Sect. 6.3.1.1.

  110. 110.

    ICC Statute, above n 56, Article 7(1)(h).

  111. 111.

    See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.5.2.

  112. 112.

    Koenig and Askin 2000, p 14, footnote 50.

  113. 113.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2 and Chap. 4, Sect. 4.4.2.2.

  114. 114.

    Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, 15 September 1995 (Beijing Declaration), Platform for Action paras 11, 115.

  115. 115.

    Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, opened for signature 11 May 2011, CETS no. 210 (entered into force 1 August 2014), Article 39(a).

  116. 116.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1993, para 22; United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2013, para 34; United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2017, para 18.

  117. 117.

    United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2016, para 59.

  118. 118.

    United Nations Human Rights Committee 2000, para 11.

  119. 119.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.7.

  120. 120.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Transcript, 18 March 2009, ICC-01/04-01/06-T-150-Red-ENG CT WT, pp 35–36. See also Grey 2019, p 136; Grey forthcoming, p 2.

  121. 121.

    With regard to genocidal contexts, see also Chap. 4, Sect. 4.4.3.

  122. 122.

    Beijing Declaration, above n 114, Platform for Action para 115. See also Eriksson 2000, pp 252–259.

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    Tanja Altunjan

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Altunjan, T. (2021). Enforced Sterilization and Other Forms of Reproductive Violence as Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes. In: Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law. International Criminal Justice Series, vol 29. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-451-8_6

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-451-8_6

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