Reproductive Violence and Genocide

Altunjan, Tanja

doi:10.1007/978-94-6265-451-8_4

Tanja Altunjan⁴

Part of the book series: International Criminal Justice Series ((ICJS,volume 29))

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Abstract

This chapter discusses the potentials to prosecute different manifestations of reproductive violence as the crime of genocide under Article II of the Genocide Convention. In the light of the historical background, most notably the “genocidal rape” debate of the 1990s, it explores the somewhat paradoxical conceptualization of pregnancy-related crimes, namely the forcible impregnation or continuation of a pregnancy, as genocide. The implications of this debate for the children born as a result are also addressed, most importantly the danger of marginalization. In this context, it is argued that an assessment of the perpetrator’s criminal responsibility should be conducted with a view to the violation of the individual’s reproductive autonomy, meaning an interference with the right to reproduce in a self-determined manner, and not on the basis of exclusionary conceptualizations of ethnicity. The chapter further examines the elements of the reproductive crime of “imposing measures intended to prevent births” under Article II(d) of the Genocide Convention and argues that acts of reproductive violence such as forced impregnation, forced pregnancy, forced sterilization, forced abortion, and forced contraception may be prosecuted as genocide.

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Notes

1.
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, opened for signature 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS 278 (entered into force 12 January 1951) (Genocide Convention).
2.
See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.4.1.
3.
See generally Harbour 2016.
4.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.5.
5.
Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights 1993, para 3.
6.
Ibid., para 7, Annex II paras 1–3.
7.
Ibid., Annex II, para 9.
8.
Ibid., Annex II, para 29.
9.
Ibid., Annex II, paras 10–14.
10.
Ibid., Annex II, paras 16, 27.
11.
Ibid., Annex II, para 31.
12.
Ibid., Annex II, para 43.
13.
Ibid., Annex II, para 45.
14.
Ibid., Annex II, para 41.
15.
Commission of Experts 1994.
16.
Ibid., paras 129–150.
17.
Ibid., paras 232–253.
18.
Ibid., paras 244–249.
19.
Ibid., para 248.
20.
Ibid., para 250.
21.
See generally Harbour 2016.
22.
EC Investigative Mission Into the Treatment of Treatment of Muslim Women in the Former Yugoslavia 1993, para 15.
23.
Helsinki Watch 1993, p 21.
24.
Ibid., pp 218–219.
25.
Ibid., pp 21–23.
26.
Drakulić, Women Hide Behind a Wall of Silence, The Nation, 1 March 1993, p 271.
27.
Fisk, Bosnia War Crimes: “The Rapes Went on Day and Night”, Independent, 8 February 1993, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/bosnia-war-crimes-the-rapes-went-on-day-and-night-robert-fisk-in-mostar-gathers-detailed-evidence-of-1471656.html (accessed 24 October 2020).
28.
Ibid.
29.
Stiglmayer 1993, also published one year later in English, Stiglmayer 1994a.
30.
Stiglmayer 1994b, p 104.
31.
Stiglmayer 1994b, p 118.
32.
Stiglmayer 1994b, p 119.
33.
Stiglmayer 1994b, p 130.
34.
Stiglmayer 1994b, pp 131–133.
35.
Stiglmayer 1994b, p 132.
36.
Ibid.
37.
Stiglmayer 1994b, p 133.
38.
Allen 1996, pp 62–63.
39.
Ibid., p 63.
40.
See Carpenter 2010, pp 22–23.
41.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.4.2.
42.
ICTY, Prosecutor v Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić, Review of the Indictments Pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 11 July 1996, IT-95-5-R61 and IT-95-18-R61 (Karadžić and Mladić Review of Indictments 1996), para 64.
43.
ICTY, Prosecutor v Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovač and Zoran Vuković, Judgment, 22 February 2001, IT-96-23-T and IT-96-23/1-T, para 342, see also paras 583, 654; ICTY, Prosecutor v Radoslav Brđanin, Judgment, 1 September 2004, IT-99-36-T (Brđanin 2004), para 1011.
44.
The application was originally brought in 1993 against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
45.
International Court of Justice, Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, 26 February 2007, 2007 I.C.J. Reports 43 (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro 2007), para 362.
46.
Ibid.
47.
Ibid., paras 363–365.
48.
Ibid., para 367.
49.
See also Drake 2012, pp 603–604, pointing out that the International Court of Justice dealt with evidence of forced pregnancy exclusively in the—rather limited—context of Article II(e) of the Genocide Convention, above n 1.
50.
Askin 1997, pp 273–274.
51.
Ibid., p 274, footnote 902. See also Carpenter 2000a, p 223.
52.
Brownmiller 1975, p 84; Greve 2008, pp 31–32.
53.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.2.
54.
Brownmiller 1975, p 85, quoting Indian novelist Mulk Raj Anand.
55.
Roychowdhury, Birth of Bangladesh: When Raped Women and War Babies Paid the Price of a New Nation, Indian Express, 19 December 2016, https://indianexpress.com/article/research/birth-of-bangladesh-when-raped-women-and-war-babies-paid-the-price-of-a-new-nation-victory-day-4430420/ (accessed 24 October 2020).
56.
D’Costa and Hossain 2010, p 343, quoting scholar and activist Salma Sobhan. See also Seto 2013, pp 29–30.
57.
D’Costa and Hossain 2010, p 343.
58.
Ibid., p 343.
59.
See also Carpenter 2000a, p 223 (“the genocide that brought ‘forced impregnation’ to the world’s attention”).
60.
Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 45.
61.
See generally Chap. 5, Sect. 5.3.
62.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.8.
63.
Wax, “We Want to Make a Light Baby”: Arab Militiamen in Sudan Said to Use Rape as a Weapon of Ethnic Cleansing, Washington Post, 30 June 2004, https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A16001-2004Jun29.html (accessed 24 October 2020). See also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.2.
64.
Copelon 1994, p 246.
65.
See generally Engle 2005, pp 785–788; MacKinnon 1994b; Russell-Brown 2003, pp 362–365; Zawati 2014, pp 96–103.
66.
MacKinnon 1994a, p 8.
67.
Ibid., pp 9–10.
68.
Ibid., p 11.
69.
Copelon 1994, p 246.
70.
Ibid., pp 246, 259–260.
71.
Ibid., p 259.
72.
Ibid., p 246.
73.
Ibid., p 247.
74.
Brownmiller 1994, p 180.
75.
MacKinnon 1994a, p 9.
76.
Ibid., p 11.
77.
On the concept of intersectionality, see Crenshaw 1989. See also Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2.1.2.
78.
Copelon 1994, p 261; MacKinnon 1994a, p 10.
79.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.5.
80.
ICTR, Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T (Akayesu 1998), para 507; Karadžić and Mladić Review of Indictments 1996, above n 42, para 94.
81.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 508. See also International Court of Justice, Case Concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v Serbia), Judgment, 3 February 2015, 2015 I.C.J. Reports 3 (Croatia v Serbia 2015), para 166.
82.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 731.
83.
See e.g. ICTY, Prosecutor v Milomir Stakić, Judgment, 31 July 2003, IT-97-24-T (Stakić 2003), para 516; Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro 2007, above n 45, para 300; Croatia v Serbia 2015, above n 81, para 158. See also ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 6(b), no. 1, footnote 3: “This conduct may include, but is not necessarily restricted to, acts of torture, rape, sexual violence or inhuman or degrading treatment.”
84.
See Bassiouni and Manikas 1996, p 587; De Brouwer 2005, pp 51–56; Schabas 2009, pp 185–188; Schwarz 2019, pp 144–151; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 895.
85.
See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.3.2.
86.
Allen 1996, pp 92, 96.
87.
See Askin 1997, p 276. See also Allen 1996, pp 62–63, identifying three main forms of genocidal rape against Bosnian and Croatian women, namely: public rape in order to drive communities to leave their homes, random rapes in “concentration camps”, rape in “rape/death camps” either as torture preceding death or in the form of forced pregnancy.
88.
See Carpenter 2000b, p 432.
89.
Allen 1996, pp 62–86; Campanaro 2001, p 2571; Card 2008; MacKinnon 1994a, p 13. On the relation between sexual violence, reproduction and genocide, see generally Fein 1999.
90.
See Copelon 1994, pp 256, 261; Fisher 1996, p 93; Goldstein 1993, pp 22–24; Green et al. 1994, p 237; Helsinki Watch 1993, pp 21–22.
91.
See Copelon 1994, p 256; Fisher 1996, pp 95–105; Goldstein 1993, pp 16–28; Green et al. 1994, pp 236–237. See Chap. 5.
92.
See this chapter, Sect. 4.3.
93.
Fisher 1996, p 93.
94.
Allen 1996, p 92.
95.
Fisher 1996, p 93. See also Short 2003, p 511. Similarly Card 2008, pp 183–185.
96.
Allen 1996, p 96.
97.
Ibid. See also Card 2008, pp 183–185.
98.
Allen 1996, pp 130–131.
99.
MacKinnon 1994a, p 13.
100.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 507.
101.
See also Allen 1996, p 87 (“Enforced pregnancy as a method of genocide makes sense only if you are ignorant about genetics. No baby born from such a crime will be only Serb. It will receive half its genetic material from its mother.”); Seto 2013, p 123.
102.
Markovic 2007, p 453.
103.
Lexico Oxford Dictionary, Ethnicity, https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/ethnicity (accessed 24 October 2020).
104.
See generally Weitsman 2007.
105.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 507. The more precise term to describe societies in which certain characteristics are passed down through the male line is patrilineality, see also Schwarz 2019, p 157; Short 2003, pp 513–514.
106.
Allen 1996, p 97.
107.
See also Salzmann 1998, pp 364–365.
108.
See Sharlach 2000, p 95; Takai 2011, p 396.
109.
See Kajjo, Yazidis Divided Over Children Born of IS Rape, VOA, 29 April 2019, https://www.voanews.com/a/yazidis-divided-over-children-born-of-islamic-state-rape/4896530.html (accessed 24 October 2020). See also Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2.2 and Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.10.
110.
See Epik 2018, p 34.
111.
Allen 1996, pp 87, 97.
112.
See Carpenter 2000b, pp 443–444. See also Card 2008, p 188.
113.
Salzmann 1998, p 364. See also Seto 2013, pp 123–125; Weitsman 2007, pp 111–112.
114.
Markovic 2007, pp 454–455; Salzmann 1998, p 364.
115.
See also Weitsman 2007, p 118.
116.
Neenan 2018.
117.
Allen 1996, pp 87–101; Card 2008, pp 184–185; Cudd 2008, p 192; Short 2003, pp 512–514.
118.
Carpenter 2000a. See also Seto 2013, pp 119–125.
119.
See Carpenter 2000b, pp 454–455; Markovic 2007, p 455.
120.
Carpenter 2010, p 18.
121.
Carpenter 2000a, pp 230–239.
122.
See Ambos 2018, § 7 marginal no 125; Kreß 2018, marginal no 2; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 868, 871–872.
123.
Genocide Convention, above n 1.
124.
See e.g. Card 2008; Drake 2012; Engle 2005; Markovic 2007; Short 2003; Takai 2011.
125.
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 July 2002) (ICC Statute), Article 6; Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, adopted 25 May 1993 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 827 (ICTY Statute), Article 4; Statute for the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, adopted 8 November 1994 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 955 (ICTR Statute), Article 2(2); Law on the Establishment of Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, 10 August 2001, with inclusion of amendments as promulgated on 27 October 2004, NS/RKM/1004/006, Article 4(2); Statute of the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in the Courts of Dili, Regulation no. 2000/15 on the Establishment of Panels With Exclusive Jurisdiction Over Serious Criminal Offences, UN Doc. UNTAET/REG/2000/15, 6 June 2000, Article 4; Statute of the Extraordinary African Chambers, Annex to Accord Entre le Gouvernement de la République du Sénégal et l’Union Africaine sur la Création de Chambres Africaines Extraordinaires au Sein des Juridictions Sénégalaises, 22 August 2012, Article 5.
126.
See Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3.3.1.
127.
The debate on whether dolus eventualis may fulfil the intent requirement of Article 30 of the ICC Statute (see e.g. Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 547–550, 561) is irrelevant at this stage, because the intent threshold is used only to conceptually differentiate the act of forced impregnation from an act of rape without a reproductive component.
128.
Genocide Convention, above n 1, Article II.
129.
See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 875.
130.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, paras 510–516; see also De Brouwer 2005, pp 73–74; Paul 2008, p 87; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 876–877.
131.
See e.g. Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 171 (“[T]he Tutsi were conceived of as an ethnic group by those who targeted them for killing.”), para 702 (“[A]ll the Rwandan witnesses who appeared before it invariably answered spontaneously and without hesitation the questions of the Prosecutor regarding their ethnic identity.”). See also Martin 2009, p 123; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 877.
132.
ICTR, Prosecutor v Clément Kayishema and Obed Ruzindana, Judgment, 21 May 1999, ICTR-95-1-T (Kayishema and Ruzindana 1999), para 98.
133.
Martin 2009, p 123; Quigley 2013, p 153.
134.
ICTY, Prosecutor v Goran Jelisić, Judgment, 14 December 1999, IT-95-10-T, para 70. See also ICTY, Prosecutor v Radislav Krstić, Judgment, 2 August 2001, IT-98-33-T (Krstić 2001), para 557.
135.
See Kreß 2018, marginal no 33; Schabas 2009, pp 127–128; Zahar and Sluiter 2008, p 162.
136.
ICTR, Prosecutor v Georges Anderson Nderubumwe Rutaganda, Judgment, 6 December 1999, ICTR-96-3-T (Rutaganda 1999), para 56.
137.
Ibid., para 57. See also ICTR, Prosecutor v Alfred Musema, Judgment, 27 January 2000, ICTR-96-13-A (Musema 2000), paras 161–162.
138.
Stakić 2003, above n 83, para 25; Brđanin 2004, above n 43, para 684. See also Martin 2009, p 125.
139.
See e.g. Musema 2000, above n 137, para 163. See also Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 880–881 with further references.
140.
See Ambos 2013, pp 8–9; Ambos 2018, § 7 marginal no 128; Schabas 2009, p 128 (though leaning more towards subjective criteria); Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 882 with further references. However, some authors propose an exclusively objective or exclusively subjective approach: for an objective approach see Kreß 2018, marginal no 33, albeit with certain concessions towards a subjective corrective (marginal nos 38, 46); for a subjective approach from the perpetrator’s perspective see Paul 2008, pp 160–167.
141.
International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur 2005, para 501.
142.
See similarly Quigley 2013, p 156.
143.
See Lüders 2004, pp 173–176; Schabas 2009, p 181.
144.
See Jeßberger 2009, p 98; Lüders 2004, pp 180–183; Schwarz 2019, p 134; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 896.
145.
See Ambos 2013, pp 12–13; Ambos 2018, § 7 marginal no 133; De Brouwer 2005, p 56; Jeßberger 2009, p 99; Lüders 2004, pp 185–186; Schabas 2009, p 188; Schabas 2016, marginal no 24; Schwarz 2019, p 143.
146.
See Ambos 2013, p 12; Jeßberger 2009, pp 98–99; Lüders 2004, pp 186–187; Schwarz 2019, p 142; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 897.
147.
Krstić 2001, above n 134, para 513.
148.
Kayishema and Ruzindana 1999, above n 132, para 113. See also Lüders 2004, p 187.
149.
See Fisher 1996, p 123; Goldstein 1993, pp 17, 23; Paul 2008, pp 190–191; Schwarz 2019, p 149.
150.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.3.
151.
Fisher 1996, p 123.
152.
See ibid.
153.
See Buehler 2002, p 165; Fisher 1996, p 122; Goldstein 1993, p 23; Green et al. 1994, p 194; Soh 2006, pp 335–336.
154.
See Goldstein 1993, pp 17–18; Green et al. 1994, p 237; Paul 2008, pp 190–191; Schwarz 2019, p 149.
155.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.3.
156.
See Buehler 2002, p 165.
157.
See Fisher 1996, p 122.
158.
See Greve 2008, p 33; Grey 2017, p 907; Leatherman 2011, p 49; United Nations Security Council 2019, para 20.
159.
See Adams 2013, p 180; Ambos 2013, p 13; Jeßberger 2009, p 100; Schabas 2009, p 191; Schwarz 2019, p 151; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 898.
160.
See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 899. Another example for the latter category are the so-called deportations of the Armenian population under Ottoman rule in 1915, see Kreß 2018, marginal no 57; Schabas 2009, pp 192–193.
161.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 506.
162.
ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 6(c), no. 4, footnote 4.
163.
See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.3.2.
164.
See Ambos 2013, p 13; De Brouwer 2005, p 56; Jeßberger 2009, pp 100–101; Lüders 2004, pp 187–188; Schabas 2009, p 192; Schwarz 2019, p 151.
165.
See Ambos 2018, § 7 marginal no 135; Schwarz 2019, pp 151–152.
166.
See Kreß 2018, marginal no 54; Lüders 2004, pp 189–192; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 900.
167.
See Ambos 2013, p 13; Ambos 2018, § 7 marginal no 134; Ambos and Wirth 2001, pp 784–786; Paul 2008, p 195; Schwarz 2019, p 152.
168.
See Fisher 1996, pp 123–124; Goldstein 1993, p 23; Green et al. 1994, p 194.
169.
See Adams 2013, pp 179–180; Bassiouni and Manikas 1996, p 587; Paul 2008, p 198.
170.
Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, p 587.
171.
Fisher 1996, p 123; see also Paul 2008, p 198.
172.
See Fisher 1996, pp 123–124; Goldstein 1993, p 23.
173.
See Schwarz 2019, p 154. See also Lüders 2004, pp 192–193, 219; Kreß 2018, marginal no 55, pointing out that including social destruction of a group would undermine the drafters’ intention not to include “cultural genocide”.
174.
See also ICC Statute, above n 125, Article 6(d); ICTY Statute, above n 125, Article 4(2)(d); ICTR Statute, above n 125, Article 2(2)(d).
175.
Jeßberger 2009, p 101; Kreß 2018, marginal no 58.
176.
Adams 2013, p 128; De Brouwer 2005, pp 43–44; Jeßberger 2009, p 101; Schabas 2009, p 197; Schwarz 2019, p 155.
177.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.3.
178.
See United Nations Economic and Social Council 1947, p 26.
179.
See De Brouwer 2005, pp 43–44.
180.
United Nations Economic and Social Council 1947, pp 6, 26; see also Schabas 2009, p 197.
181.
See Kreß 2018, marginal no 62.
182.
See Adams 2013, p 128; De Brouwer 2005, p 59; Jeßberger 2009, p 102; Lüders 2004, p 197; Paul 2008, p 203; Schabas 2009, p 198; Schwarz 2019, p 155. During the negotiations of the ICC’s Elements of Crimes, the United States proposed to include an element requiring “[t]hat the measures imposed had the effect of preventing births within that group”, Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court 1999. This was not adopted. See also Schabas 2009, pp 197–198, on the different proposals during the negotiations for the Genocide Convention.
183.
See Kreß 2018, marginal no 61; Paul 2008, p 203; Schwarz 2019, p 155. In this vein, see also Croatia v Serbia 2015, above n 81, para 166: “[I]t is necessary that the circumstances of the commission of those acts, and their consequences, are such that the capacity of members of the group to procreate is affected.”
184.
See also Lüders 2004, p 197.
185.
See Jeßberger 2009, p 102; Paul 2008, p 204; Schwarz 2019, p 159; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 902.
186.
See Lüders 2004, p 197; Paul 2008, p 204; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 902.
187.
See also International Law Commission 1996, p 46.
188.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 508; Rutaganda 1999, above n 136, para 53; ICTY, Prosecutor v Zdravko Tolimir, Judgment, 12 December 2012, IT-05-88/2-T (Tolimir 2012), para 743. See also Schwarz 2019, p 156.
189.
See Bassiouni and Manikas 1996, p 588; Buehler 2002, p 165; Goldstein 1993, p 24; Green et al. 1994, p 194; Russell-Brown 2003, p 355; Schwarz 2019, pp 156–158; Soh 2006, p 336; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 902; Wing and Merchán 1993, p 18.
190.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 507. See also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.4.1.
191.
See Paul 2008, pp 204–205.
192.
See Goldstein 1993, p 24.
193.
See Fisher 1996, p 122.
194.
In support of the application of Article II(d) of the Genocide Convention, above n 1, in cases of psychological trauma leading to inability or unwillingness to reproduce, see Buehler 2002, p 165 (“[…] psychological consequences for the woman that equally might prevent her from giving birth to children of her own group in the future.”); Paul 2008, p 205; Wing and Merchán 1993, p 19 (“[A]s a result of the rapes, these women are unlikely to want to have sex […], which will also lead to a prevention of births of Bosnian Muslim children.”).
195.
See Goldstein 1993, p 24 (“If […] as a result of her pregnancy she is rendered unmarriageable within her community, the enforced pregnancy may preclude her permanently from having a child of her own ethnicity or genetic heritage.”); Lüders 2004, p 219; Paul 2008, p 205; Russell-Brown 2003, p 355 (“[R]ape as an act of genocide as ‘practiced’ in Bosnia resulted, inter alia, in the prevention of births within the particular ethnic group of the victim, because […] the victim would no longer be a desirable candidate for having children of her own ethnicity.”); Soh 2006, p 336 (“The number of the ‘pure’ ethnic group is then decreased as victims are rejected as potential candidates for physical and cultural procreation.”); Wing and Merchán 1993, p 19 (“[A]s a result of the rapes, these women are unlikely […] to be accepted sexually by their spouses or potential spouses, which will also lead to a prevention of births of Bosnian Muslim children.”). See also Fisher 1996, p 93 (“[W]omen who are raped and bear the children of the aggressors may no longer be marriageable in their society.”), though not specifically in the context of Article II(d) of the Genocide Convention, above n 1.
196.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.3.
197.
See Bassiouni and Manikas 1996, p 588; Fisher 1996, p 124, footnote 205; Russell-Brown 2003, p 355; Schwarz 2019, pp 156–158; Soh 2006, p 336; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 902; Wing and Merchán 1993, pp 18–19.
198.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 507.
199.
Most notably, though not explicitly in regard of Article II(d) of the Genocide Convention, above n 1, see Fisher 1996, p 93 (“[T]he women, simply because they are pregnant with the children of the aggressors, cannot bear their own children during this time – their wombs are ‘occupied’.”). See also Bassiouni and Manikas 1996, p 588 (“[D]uring the time of the pregnancy, women of the target group are unable to have children of the group.”); Buehler 2002, p 165 (“physical circumstance of the victim’s pregnancy with a foetus of the perpetrator’s ethnicity”); Goldstein 1993, p 24 (“For at least the nine months it takes to carry the rapist’s child to term, a woman is incapable of conceiving and bearing a child of her own ethnicity.”); MacKinnon 2005, p 327; Paul 2008, p 205.
200.
See this chapter, Sect. 4.2.4.
201.
This chapter, Sect. 4.3.1.3.
202.
See this chapter, Sect. 4.2.4.
203.
Schwarz 2019, pp 157–158.
204.
See Carpenter 2000a, p 232 in the context of Article II(e) of the Genocide Convention, above n 1.
205.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.2.
206.
See Ambos 2013, p 14; Kreß 2018, marginal no 65; Lüders 2004, p 198; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 904.
207.
See Schabas 2009, pp 207–221 with further references to the process of negotiations.
208.
See Carpenter 2000a, p 225; Paul 2008, p 208.
209.
See Jeßberger 2009, p 103; Lüders 2004, p 200; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 905.
210.
See Kreß 2018, marginal no 65; Lüders 2004, p 200; Paul 2008, p 207; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 905.
211.
International Law Commission 1996, p 46.
212.
See Kreß 2018, marginal no 67; Paul 2008, p 209; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 906.
213.
See Kreß 2018, marginal no 68; Lüders 2004, pp 202–205; Paul 2008, pp 208–209; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 907. In this regard, the German translation of forcibly, “gewaltsam”, in Section 6(1) no. 5 of the German Code of Crimes Against International Law appears too restricted. See also ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 6(e), no. 1, footnote 5: “The term ‘forcibly’ is not restricted to physical force, but may include threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of violence, duress, detention, psychological oppression or abuse of power, against such person or persons or another person, or by taking advantage of a coercive environment.”
214.
See Lüders 2004, p 201; Paul 2008, p 209.
215.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, opened for signature 20 November 1989, 1577 UNTS 3 (entered into force 2 September 1990), Article 1. See Kreß 2018, marginal no 66; Lüders 2004, p 202; Paul 2008, p 210; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 906. This approach was adopted in the ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 6(e), no. 5. However, see also Schabas 2009, p 203, pointing out that older children are less likely to be deprived of their group’s cultural identity.
216.
Salzmann 1998, p 375.
217.
Ibid., p 375.
218.
See Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro 2007, above n 45, para 366.
219.
De Brouwer 2005, p 60. See also Green et al. 1994, p 194; Healey 1995–1996, p 371; Karagiannakis 1999, pp 488–489.
220.
See also Marino 2009, pp 222–223.
221.
Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro 2007, above n 45, para 362.
222.
Wing and Merchán 1993, pp 19–20.
223.
See also Carpenter 2000a, pp 225–227; Carpenter 2000b, pp 441–442.
224.
See also Lüders 2004, pp 201–202, 220–221.
225.
For the purposes of the ICC, see ICC Statute, above n 125, Article 30.
226.
See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 924–925.
227.
See Jeßberger 2009, p 105.
228.
See Ambos 2018, § 7 marginal no 146; Lüders 2004, p 102; Schwarz 2019, p 161; Vesper-Gräske 2016, pp 183–185 (“überschießende Innentendenz”); see also Jeßberger 2009, p 105; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 930.
229.
See e.g. Jeßberger 2009, pp 105–106.
230.
See e.g. ICC, Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, Decision on the Prosecution’s Application for a Warrant of Arrest Against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, 4 March 2009, ICC-02/05-01/09, para 139 (see particularly footnote 154); Krstić 2001, above n 134, para 571 (“goal of destroying all or part of a group”). For an overview of the ad hoc tribunals’ jurisprudence, see Lüders 2004, pp 103–105.
231.
See Greenawalt 1999; Kreß 2018, marginal no 82; Vest 2014, marginal nos 205–243.
232.
See also Paul 2008, pp 253–254.
233.
See Jeßberger 2009, p 106; Lüders 2004, pp 112–118; Vesper-Gräske 2016, pp 180–182; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 926.
234.
See Ambos 2013, pp 39–40; Ambos 2018, § 7 marginal no 257; Lüders 2004, pp 49–51; Schwarz 2019, pp 139–140; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 931. See also Schabas 2009, pp 270–273.
235.
Constitutional Court of Germany, Decision, 12 December 2000, 2 BvR 1290/99, para 22; Federal Court of Germany, Judgment, 30 April 1999, 3 StR 215/98, paras 29–30. See also Werle 2007.
236.
See particularly Krstić 2001, above n 134, paras 574–580. See also Jeßberger 2009, pp 107–108; Paul 2008, pp 289–298 with further references to the jurisprudence. See also Croatia v Serbia 2015, above n 81, para 136 (“[…]encompassing only acts carried out with the intent of achieving the physical or biological destruction of the group, in whole or in part.”)
237.
See particularly Lüders 2004, pp 49–51; Werle 2007; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 931.
238.
See this chapter, Sect. 4.2.3.
239.
See also Lüders 2004, p 94; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 925.
240.
Markovic 2007, p 456. See also Drake 2012, pp 609–610.
241.
ICC Statute, above n 125, Article 7(1)(g), Article 8(2)(b)(xxii) and Article 8(2)(e)(vi).
242.
See Akhavan 2005, p 1005; Markovic 2007, p 455.
243.
United Nations Economic and Social Council 1947, pp 6, 26; see also Schabas 2009, p 197.
244.
“Restricting births by: (a) sterilization and/or compulsory abortion; or (b) segregation of the sexes; or (c) obstacles to marriage”, see United Nations Economic and Social Council 1947, p 6, see also the commentary at p 26.
245.
See e.g. Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 507; Rutaganda 1999, above n 136, para 53; Musema 2000, above n 137, para 158; Tolimir 2012, above n 188, para 743; see also Ambos 2013, p 14; De Brouwer 2005, 43–44, 58; Drost 1959, p 87; Jeßberger 2009, p 102; Kreß 2018, marginal no 60; Lüders 2004, p 195; Paul 2008, p 204; Schabas 2016, marginal no 26; Schwarz 2019, p 158; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 902. Illustratively, see Robinson 1960, p 64: “the classic action of sterilization”.
246.
Schabas 2009, p 198.
247.
See also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.1.
248.
International Military Tribunal, The United States of America, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics v Hermann Wilhelm Göring et al., Indictment, 1945, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal, p 45 (war crimes), p 66 (crimes against humanity, referring to the facts set out in regard of war crimes).
249.
International Military Tribunal, The United States of America, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics v Hermann Wilhelm Göring et al., Transcripts, 1945–1946, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (1947–1949) (IMT Transcripts 1945–1946), vol 6, pp 196, 211–212; vol 8, pp 136, 309–314; vol 11, p 405; vol 15, p 667; vol 16, pp 45–46; vol 19, pp 498–499; vol 20, pp 272–273, 547–549; vol 22, pp 195, 300.
250.
International Military Tribunal, The United States of America, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics v Hermann Wilhelm Göring et al., Judgment, 1 October 1946, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (IMT Judgment 1946), p 252.
251.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.2.
252.
United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Brandt et al., Transcripts, 1946–1947, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (Medical Case Transcripts 1946–1947), vol 1, p 11 (war crimes), p 16 (crimes against humanity).
253.
Ibid., vol 1, p 48.
254.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.3.
255.
United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Oswald Pohl et al., Transcripts, 1947, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals, vol 5, pp 205–206 (war crimes), p 207 (crimes against humanity, referring to the facts set out in regard of war crimes).
256.
United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Oswald Pohl et al., Judgment, 3 November 1947, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals, vol 5, p 971.
257.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.4.
258.
United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Ulrich Greifelt et al., Transcripts, 1947–1948, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (RuSHA Case Transcripts 1947–1948), vol 4, pp 613–614 (crimes against humanity), pp 617–618 (war crimes, referring to the facts set out in regard of war crimes).
259.
Ibid., vol 4, p 609. See also the prosecution’s opening statement at p 689.
260.
Ulrich Greifelt, Otto Hofmann, Richard Hildebrandt, Werner Lorenz, and Heinz Brückner, see United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Ulrich Greifelt et al., Judgment, 10 March 1948, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (RuSHA Case 1948), vol 5, pp 120–125, 154–164.
261.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.5.
262.
United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 7, pp 24–26. See also Schabas 2009, p 198.
263.
Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law 5710-1950, 1 August 1950, Section 1(b)(4); compare: Genocide Convention, above n 1, Article II(d).
264.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.6.
265.
Hausner 1962, p 124.
266.
District Court of Jerusalem, Attorney General v Adolf Eichmann, Judgment, 11 December 1961, Criminal Case no. 40/61 (Eichmann 1961), paras 158, 199.
267.
See also Lüders 2004, p 195.
268.
On the general requirements, see this chapter, Sect. 4.3.2.
269.
United Nations Economic and Social Council 1947, pp 6, 26; see also Schabas 2009, p 197.
270.
See e.g. Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 507; Rutaganda 1999, above n 136, para 53; Musema 2000, above n 137, para 158; Tolimir 2012, above n 188, para 743; see also Kreß 2018, marginal no 60; Lüders 2004, p 195; Schabas 2016, marginal no 26; Schwarz 2019, p 158.
271.
IMT Transcripts 1945–1946, above n 249, vol 6, pp 170, 212–213, 547; vol 8, pp 133, 310. See also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.1.
272.
IMT Judgment 1946, above n 250, vol 1, p 260.
273.
RuSHA Case 1948, above n 260, vol 5, pp 109–112. See also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.4.
274.
RuSHA Case Transcripts 1947–1948, above n 258, vol 4, p 687.
275.
Otto Hofmann and Richard Hildebrandt, RuSHA Case 1948, above n 260, vol 5, pp 109–112, 154–164.
276.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.5.
277.
United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 7, p 15.
278.
Ibid., vol 7, pp 24–26. See also Schabas 2009, p 198.
279.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.6.
280.
Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law 5710–1950, 1 August 1950, Section 1(b)(4); compare: Genocide Convention, above n 1, Article II(d).
281.
Hausner 1962, pp 124–125.
282.
Eichmann 1961, above n 266, paras 159, 199, 244(4). See also Schabas 2016, marginal no. 26.
283.
Akayesu 1998, above n 80, para 507; Rutaganda 1999, above n 136, para 53; Musema 2000, above n 137, para 158; Tolimir 2012, above n 188, para 743.
284.
De Vos 2016.
285.
See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.10.
286.
See Pasumai Thaayagam Foundation 2015.

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Altunjan, T. (2021). Reproductive Violence and Genocide. In: Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law. International Criminal Justice Series, vol 29. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-451-8_4

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