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Historical Perspectives on Reproductive Violence in International Law

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Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law

Part of the book series: International Criminal Justice Series ((ICJS,volume 29))

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Abstract

This chapter conceptualizes reproductive violence as a distinct form of gender-based violence that is not necessarily committed in a sexualized manner. Its unique characteristic is the underlying violation of reproductive autonomy, understood as the freedom to choose whether, how, and under what circumstances to reproduce. Conflict-related reproductive violence may occur in various manifestations. This includes, for example, forced sterilization as a negative form and forced pregnancy as a positive form of reproductive targeting, which have been documented throughout history. Nevertheless, reproductive violence has rarely been addressed within the international criminal legal discourse. While post-World War II trials set important precedents particularly with regard to the act of forced sterilization, the prosecution of reproductive violence under international law has thus far remained limited to genocidal or similar group-related scenarios. Giving an overview on historical documentations of conflict-related reproductive violence and transferring insights from the discourse on reproductive human rights, this chapter argues that international criminal law and practice should address reproductive violence as a violation of reproductive autonomy independently of its possible collective dimension.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3.3. See also Grey 2017, pp 907–908.

  2. 2.

    See generally Askin 2003, p 512.

  3. 3.

    See generally Livy 1905, vol 1.9. See also Brownmiller 1975, p 34.

  4. 4.

    See Vikman 2005, p 26.

  5. 5.

    Carpenter 2000, p 223, footnote 36.

  6. 6.

    Davis 2019, originally published 1981, pp 4–5. See also Bridgewater 2001, p 42: “For female slaves, the story of slavery was the story of reproductive exploitation.”

  7. 7.

    See Bridgewater 2001, pp 19–23; Davis 2019, originally published 1981, pp 4–6; Grey forthcoming, p 6; Montoya 2019, p 38.

  8. 8.

    See Bridgewater 2001, p 26.

  9. 9.

    See Bock 1986, pp 79–80.

  10. 10.

    Gesetz zur Verminderung der Arbeitslosigkeit (Law for the Reduction of Unemployment), 1933 I Reichsgesetzblatt 323, 1 June 1933.

  11. 11.

    Durchführungsverordnung über die Gewährung von Ehestandsdarlehen (Regulation on the Granting of Marriage Loans), 1933 I Reichsgesetzblatt 377, 20 June 1933, sec. 8. See Bock 1986, pp 146–152.

  12. 12.

    Bock 1986, pp 139–169.

  13. 13.

    Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses (Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring), 1933 I Reichsgesetzblatt 529, 14 July 1933, sec. 1. See Bock 1986, pp 80–94; Ley 2004, pp 34–120; Rothmaler 1991; Simon 2001, pp 209–308.

  14. 14.

    Bock 1986, p 95.

  15. 15.

    Bock 1986, p 238; Ley 2004, p 17.

  16. 16.

    Gesetz gegen gefährliche Gewohnheitsverbrecher und über Maßregeln der Sicherung und Besserung (Law Against Habitual Criminals and on Measures of Prevention and Correction), 1933 I Reichsgesetzblatt 995, 24 November 1933, introducing sec. 42k Reichsstrafgesetzbuch. See Bock 1986, pp 94–95; Werle 1989, pp 100–102.

  17. 17.

    Bock 1986. See also Simon 2001, pp 33–52.

  18. 18.

    Askin 1997, pp 88–91; Askin 2013, pp 35–36; Grey 2017, pp 910–913.

  19. 19.

    See illustratively the prosecution’s opening statement in the Medical Case, United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Brandt et al., Transcripts, 1946–1947, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (Medical Case Transcripts 1946–1947), vol 1, pp 48–50. An extraction of the evidence can be found at vol 1, pp 695–702. See also Bock 1986, pp 453–456; Lifton 1988, pp 309–327; Spitz 2005, p 191.

  20. 20.

    United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 7, p 15. See also this chapter, Sect. 3.3.2.5.

  21. 21.

    Medical Case Transcripts 1946–1947, above n 19, vol 1, p 49.

  22. 22.

    Ibid., vol 1, pp 48–50.

  23. 23.

    Ibid., vol 1, p 48.

  24. 24.

    United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 7, p 15.

  25. 25.

    Ibid.; United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Karl Brandt et al., Judgment, 19 July 1947, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (Medical Case 1947), vol 2, pp 181–184.

  26. 26.

    See generally United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Ulrich Greifelt et al., Judgment, 10 March 1948, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (RuSHA Case 1948), vol 5, pp 109–112, 120–125. See also Bock 1986, pp 440–451.

  27. 27.

    RuSHA Case 1948, above n 26, vol 5, p 112; United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Oswald Pohl et al., Judgment, 3 November 1947, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (Pohl Case 1947), vol 5, pp 1117–1118 (concurring and dissenting opinion by Judge O’Connell, stating at 1118: “The answer was sterilization. If the Jews could be sterilized, they could be employed for profitable labor, and the race would still be extinct for the coming generations. It was a brilliant idea.”).

  28. 28.

    International Military Tribunal, The United States of America, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics v Hermann Wilhelm Göring et al., Transcripts, 1945–1946, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (1947–1949) (IMT Transcripts 1945–1946), vol 8, p 312, quoting from Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (1940).

  29. 29.

    See Bedont and Hall-Martinez 1999, p 74; Benedict and Georges 2006, pp 282–284. See also the artistic adaptation of these documentations in Weiss 2014, p 91. However, see also Mueller 2004, pp 257–258, arguing that there is little evidence for the conduction of these experiments in the literature, besides rumours from inside the concentration camps.

  30. 30.

    Fritz Bauer Institut Geschichte und Wirkung des Holocaust, Tonbandmitschnitte des Auschwitz-Prozesses (1963–1965): 68. Verhandlungstag, 23.7.1964, Vernehmung des Zeugen Ludwik Kowalczyk, p 28, https://www.auschwitz-prozess.de/resources/transcripts/pdf/Kowalczyk-Ludwik.pdf (accessed 24 October 2020).

  31. 31.

    United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 2, p 11.

  32. 32.

    Ibid., vol 7, p 16.

  33. 33.

    See Bedont and Hall-Martinez 1999, p 74.

  34. 34.

    See Perper and Cina 2010, p 75.

  35. 35.

    United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 7, p 16. See also Lifton 1988, p 311; Mueller 2004, p 257.

  36. 36.

    Askin 1997, p 74.

  37. 37.

    See generally ibid., pp 73–85.

  38. 38.

    See ibid., p 92, arguing that when the result of frequent rapes is inability to reproduce, even when this result was not intended, forcible sterilizations have been committed. This is misleading, because the crime of forced sterilization entails not only the outcome (inability to reproduce), but also the intent regarding this outcome. Accordingly, there is a clear distinction between the crimes of forced sterilization and of rape (or other types of physical violations) resulting in inability to reproduce.

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    Copelon 2000, pp 221–223; Grey 2017, p 914.

  41. 41.

    The Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal for the Trial of Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery 2001, paras 406–412.

  42. 42.

    Ibid., paras 207, 251, 332, 664, 790.

  43. 43.

    Ibid., paras 183, 251, 322, 330, 341, 349, 406, 664, 790, 965.

  44. 44.

    Ibid., paras 221, 330, 406.

  45. 45.

    Ibid., para 342.

  46. 46.

    A limited number of convictions for enforced prostitution was handed down by military courts supported by the United Nations War Crimes Commission in the 1940s, see Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.2.3. However, these trials do not depict the actual scale of the crimes.

  47. 47.

    For the historical background, see generally Werle and Vormbaum 2018, p 208.

  48. 48.

    See generally Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Prosecutor v Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan, Judgment, 16 November 2018, 002/19-09-2007/ECCC/TC (Nuon and Samphan 2018), paras 3522–3701.

  49. 49.

    Ibid., paras 3559–3563.

  50. 50.

    Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Prosecutor v Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary, Khieu Samphan and Ieng Thirith, Closing Order, 15 September 2010, 002/19-09-2007-ECCC-OCIJ (Nuon et al. Closing Order 2010), para 217; Nuon and Samphan 2018, above n 48, para 3539. See also Becker 1986, p 237; Elander 2016, p 168; Lobato 2016, pp 9–10.

  51. 51.

    See Becker 1986, p 235; De Langis et al. 2014; Lobato 2016, pp 9–19; Toy-Cronin 2010, pp 544–556.

  52. 52.

    Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Prosecutor v Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary, Khieu Samphan, Ieng Thirith and Kaing Guek Eav, Co-Lawyers for Civil Parties’ Second Request for Investigative Actions Concerning Forced Marriages and Forced Sexual Relations, 15 July 2009, 002/19-09-2007-ECCC/OCIJ, para 9.

  53. 53.

    Nuon and Samphan 2018, above n 48, paras 3564–3571.

  54. 54.

    Ibid., para 3602.

  55. 55.

    Ibid., paras 3572–3576.

  56. 56.

    Ibid., paras 3614–3616.

  57. 57.

    Ibid., para 3632.

  58. 58.

    Ibid., para 3633; see also Toy-Cronin 2010, p 548

  59. 59.

    Nuon and Samphan 2018, above n 48, paras 3549–3558.

  60. 60.

    See Becker 1986, p 235; Lobato 2016, pp 12–13; Toy-Cronin 2010, p 545.

  61. 61.

    Nuon and Samphan 2018, above n 48, paras 3614–3644; see also Lobato 2016, p 14.

  62. 62.

    Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Prosecutor v Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary, Khieu Samphan, Ieng Thirith and Kaing Guek Eav, Co-Prosecutors’ Rule 66 Final Submission, 16 August 2010, 002/19-09-2007-ECCC/OCIJ, para 321; Becker 1986, p 267; Lobato 2016, p 13; Toy-Cronin 2010, p 552.

  63. 63.

    See De Langis et al. 2014, p 104, finding that 76.2 percent of the forced pregnancies resulted in the birth of children.

  64. 64.

    See Lobato 2016, pp 18, 25.

  65. 65.

    For the historical background of the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, see generally Werle and Vormbaum 2018, pp 243–244.

  66. 66.

    See Allen 1996, pp 65–66; Commission of Experts 1994, para 248; Stiglmayer 1993, pp 149–169.

  67. 67.

    Commission of Experts 1994, para 248; see also Allen 1996, p 63; Askin 1997, pp 273–276; De Brouwer 2005, pp 9–10; Greve 2008, p 47; Harbour 2016, p 22; Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights 1993, Annex II, para 41; Verrall 2016, pp 328–329. However, the International Court of Justice could not establish that there was a policy of forced pregnancy, see International Court of Justice, Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, 26 February 2007, 2007 I.C.J. Reports 43, para 367.

  68. 68.

    See Carpenter 2010, p 22; Helsinki Watch 1993, p 219; Stiglmayer 1993, p 154.

  69. 69.

    For the historical background, see Werle and Vormbaum 2018, pp 289–290.

  70. 70.

    The widespread commission of forced sterilization was not part of the Final Report issued by the Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 2003, although it would have been covered by its mandate, see Getgen 2009, pp 17–33.

  71. 71.

    See ibid., 10–14; Gilmore, Victimhood and Responsibility for Forced Sterilisation in Peru, Justice Hub, 12 June 2019, https://justicehub.org/article/victimhood-and-responsibility-for-forced-sterilisation-in-peru/ (accessed 24 October 2020).

  72. 72.

    See Amnesty International 2004, p 20; Schwarz 2019, p 267; UPI, Peru Apologizes for Forced Sterilizations, 24 July 2002, https://www.upi.com/Peru-apologizes-for-forced-sterilizations/80301027529085/ (accessed 24 October 2020).

  73. 73.

    See Amnesty International 2004, p 20; Getgen 2009, p 11.

  74. 74.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 267.

  75. 75.

    See Getgen 2009, p 12. According to the BBC, official statistics indicate that 18 women died, see BBC, Alberto Fujimori: Peru Ex-President Faces Forced Sterilisation Charges, 27 April 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-43912023 (accessed 24 October 2020).

  76. 76.

    See UPI, above n 72.

  77. 77.

    Gilmore, above n 71.

  78. 78.

    See BBC, above n 75.

  79. 79.

    See Jenner, Fujimori to Go to Court in Forced Sterilisation Case, Peru Reports, 13 November 2018, https://perureports.com/fujimori-court-forced-sterilisation/8675/ (accessed 24 October 2020).

  80. 80.

    Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights et al. 2014.

  81. 81.

    Ibid., pp 3–8. On sterilization and intersectionality, see also Sifris 2016, pp 55–57.

  82. 82.

    See Pegoraro 2015, p 167.

  83. 83.

    See Lawrence 2000, p 410.

  84. 84.

    Project South Institute for the Elimination of Poverty & Genocide 2020, pp 18–20. See also Reinsberg and Paoletti 2020.

  85. 85.

    See e.g. Donegan, Ice Hysterectomy Allegations in Line With US’s Long and Racist History of Eugenics, The Guardian, 17 September 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/sep/17/ice-hysterectomy-allegations-us-eugenics-history (accessed 24 October 2020); Shoichet, In a Horrifying History of Forced Sterilizations, Some Fear the US is Beginning a New Chapter, CNN, 16 September 2020, https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/16/us/ice-hysterectomy-forced-sterilization-history/index.html (accessed 24 October 2020).

  86. 86.

    Zenz 2020. See also Reinsberg 2020.

  87. 87.

    For the historical background, see Werle and Vormbaum 2018, pp 286–287.

  88. 88.

    BBC, Colombia: Spain Agrees to Extradite Farc “Abortions Nurse”, 28 January 2017, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-38777734 (accessed 24 October 2020); Piñeros, The Women Abandoned by Peace: Victims of Sexual Violence and Forced Abortion During Colombia’s Long Years of Conflict Have yet to See Justice, Foreign Policy, 18 October 2018, https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/10/18/the-women-abandoned-by-peace/ (accessed 24 October 2020); Vivanco, Colombia: Sexual Violence by FARC Guerillas Exposed: Colombia’s Peace Agreement a Dirty Deal, Without Justice for Atrocities, Human Rights Watch, 11 August 2016, https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/08/11/colombia-sexual-violence-farc-guerrillas-exposed (accessed 24 October 2020).

  89. 89.

    See on both forced contraception and forced abortion De Vos 2016.

  90. 90.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2012, para 91. However, these allegations do not appear in any further Prosecution reports on the preliminary examination activities in Colombia.

  91. 91.

    See BBC, above n 88; De Vos 2016.

  92. 92.

    See BBC, above n 88; Vivanco, above n 88.

  93. 93.

    For a summary of the cases, see Women’s Link Worldwide, Convictions and Pending Prosecutions for Sexual and Reproductive Violence Committed Against Forcibly Recruited, Civilian, and Combatant Women and Girls in the Armed Conflict of Colombia, 7 October 2019, https://www.womenslinkworldwide.org/en/files/3100/convictions-and-pending-prosecutions-for-sexual-and-reproductive-violence-committed-against-women-and-girls-in-the-armed-conflict-of-colombia.pdf (accessed 24 October 2020).

  94. 94.

    Constitutional Court of Colombia, Sentencia SU 599–2019, Judgment, 11 December 2019 (Helena 2019).

  95. 95.

    Ley 1448 de 2011 por la cual se dictan medidas de atención, asistencia y reparación integral a las víctimas del conflicto armado interno y se dictan otras disposiciones, 10 June 2011.

  96. 96.

    For commentary on the decision, see Chinkin and Yoshida 2019; De Vos 2020; Laverty and De Vos 2020.

  97. 97.

    Helena 2019, above n 94, Section II, 2.11, 3.2.

  98. 98.

    See also De Vos 2020; Laverty and De Vos 2020.

  99. 99.

    Women’s Link Worldwide, Women’s Link Worldwide Files an Initial Report With the Colombian Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP in Spanish) Documenting Violations of the Reproductive Rights of Women and Girls Within the Ranks of the FARC, 7 October 2019, https://www.womenslinkworldwide.org/en/news-and-publications/press-room/women-s-link-worldwide-files-an-initial-report-with-the-colombian-special-jurisdiction-for-peace-jep-in-spanish-documenting-violations-of-the-reproductive-rights-of-women-and-girls-within-the-ranks-of-the-farc (accessed 24 October 2020).

  100. 100.

    ICC, Situation in the Republic of Burundi, Public Redacted Version of “Decision Pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome Statute on the Authorization of an Investigation into the Situation in the Republic of Burundi”, 25 October 2017, ICC-01/17-X (Burundi Authorization 2017), paras 33–36.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., para 46.

  102. 102.

    The video is available at YouTube, Des Imbonerakure à Ntega (Kirundo, nord du Burundi) – 2017, 7 April 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sTqB1E1hqsU (accessed 24 October 2020); translation according to United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Grotesque Rape Chants Lay Bare Campaign of Terror by Burundi Militia – Zeid, 18 April 2017, https://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=21505 (accessed 24 October 2020). See also United Nations Security Council 2018, para 91.

  103. 103.

    United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, above n 102.

  104. 104.

    United Nations Security Council 2017.

  105. 105.

    For the historical background, see Coulter 2009, pp 31–56; Werle and Vormbaum 2018, pp 181–182.

  106. 106.

    See Coulter 2009, pp 3, 95–124.

  107. 107.

    See ibid., pp 3, 115, 208, 232.

  108. 108.

    See ibid., p 115, footnote 8.

  109. 109.

    For the historical background, see Werle and Vormbaum 2018, pp 191–192.

  110. 110.

    International Criminal Court, Situation in Uganda, https://www.icc-cpi.int/uganda (accessed 24 October 2020).

  111. 111.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Judgment, 4 February 2021, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen 2021).

  112. 112.

    Ibid., paras 212–221.

  113. 113.

    Ibid., paras 2069–2070.

  114. 114.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Common Legal Representative of Victims’ Closing Brief, 28 February 2020, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen Victims Closing Brief 2020), para 85, footnote 252.

  115. 115.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Transcript, 21 May 2019, ICC-02/04-01/15-T-216-ENG ET WT, pp 24–25.

  116. 116.

    United Nations Human Rights Council 2016, para 1.

  117. 117.

    Ibid., paras 32–41.

  118. 118.

    Ibid., paras 42–80. See also Epik 2018, pp 34–37.

  119. 119.

    Global Justice Center 2016, p 1.

  120. 120.

    United Nations Human Rights Council 2016, para 62.

  121. 121.

    Ibid., paras 64–68.

  122. 122.

    See Callimachi, To Maintain Supply of Sex Slaves, ISIS Pushes Birth Control: Modern Methods Allow the Islamic State to Keep up its Systematic Rape of Captives Under Medieval Codes, New York Times, 12 March 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/13/world/middleeast/to-maintain-supply-of-sex-slaves-isis-pushes-birth-control.html (accessed 24 October 2020); see also De Vos 2016.

  123. 123.

    United Nations Human Rights Council 2016, paras 60–71. One report found that out of 700 Yazidi women, 35 had become pregnant, see Callimachi, above n 122.

  124. 124.

    Callimachi, above n 122; Global Justice Center 2016, pp 3–4; Marczak 2018, p 147; Shubert and Naik, ISIS “Forced Pregnant Yazidi Women to Have Abortions”, CNN, 6 October 2015, https://edition.cnn.com/2015/10/06/middleeast/pregnant-yazidis-forced-abortions-isis/index.html (accessed 24 October 2020).

  125. 125.

    Global Justice Center 2016, p 3. See also Marczak 2018, p 147.

  126. 126.

    United Nations Human Rights Council 2016, paras 19, 144.

  127. 127.

    Global Justice Center 2016, p 3.

  128. 128.

    See Epik 2018, p 37.

  129. 129.

    See Hussein, Pregnant IS Rape Victims Face Challenges Upon Returning to Iraq, VOA, 20 August 2016, https://www.voanews.com/a/pregnant-islamic-state-rape-victims-face-challenges-return-iraq/3473322.html (accessed 24 October 2020). See also Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2.2.

  130. 130.

    See generally Carpenter 2007; Carpenter 2010; Seto 2013.

  131. 131.

    Nowrojee 1996, p 4. The fate of these children and their mothers has attracted worldwide media attention, see for example McKinley Jr., Legacy of Rwanda Violence: The Thousands Born of Rape, New York Times, 23 September 1996, https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/23/world/legacy-of-rwanda-violence-the-thousands-born-of-rape.html (accessed 24 October 2020). See also Mukangendo 2007.

  132. 132.

    See Carpenter 2010, pp 22–23.

  133. 133.

    Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights 1993, Annex II, para 9.

  134. 134.

    See Drakulić, Women Hide Behind a Wall of Silence, The Nation, 1 March 1993, p 271. See generally Daniel-Wrabetz 2007.

  135. 135.

    See Lobato 2016, pp 16–19.

  136. 136.

    For the historical background, see Werle and Vormbaum 2018, p 203.

  137. 137.

    Brownmiller 1975, p 84; D’Costa and Hossain 2010, p 339; Greve 2008, pp 31–32; Seto 2013, pp 29–30.

  138. 138.

    See Polgreen, Darfur’s Babies of Rape Are on Trial From Birth, New York Times, 11 February 2005, https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/11/world/africa/darfurs-babies-of-rape-are-on-trial-from-birth.html (accessed 24 October 2020).

  139. 139.

    See Wax, “We Want to Make a Light Baby”: Arab Militiamen in Sudan Said to Use Rape as a Weapon of Ethnic Cleansing, Washington Post, 30 June 2004, https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A16001-2004Jun29.html (accessed 24 October 2020). See also Carpenter 2010, p 21.

  140. 140.

    For the historical background, see Werle and Vormbaum 2018, pp 214–215.

  141. 141.

    See Rimmer 2010, p 121.

  142. 142.

    See Coulter 2009, pp 3, 232–235.

  143. 143.

    See ibid., pp 232–235. See also Special Court for Sierra Leone, Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu, Appeals Judgment, 22 February 2008, SCSL-2004-16-A (Brima et al. 2008), para 199; Baldi and MacKenzie 2007.

  144. 144.

    International Center for Transitional Justice, “I Am Not Who They Think I Am”: New ICTJ and MediaStorm Film Confronts Stigma Facing Children Born of War, 2 January 2017, https://www.ictj.org/news/not-who-they-think-i-am-stigma-uganda (accessed 24 October 2020).

  145. 145.

    See Apio 2007; International Center for Transitional Justice 2015. See also Ongwen Victims Closing Brief 2020, above n 114, paras 89–91, 104–106

  146. 146.

    United Nations Human Rights Council 2018, para 99.

  147. 147.

    Neenan 2018. With regard to Uganda, see also Ongwen Victims Closing Brief 2020, above n 114, paras 104–106.

  148. 148.

    See Carpenter 2010, pp 33–37; Coulter 2009, pp 232–235; Leatherman 2011, p 49.

  149. 149.

    See Carpenter 2010, pp 18, 33.

  150. 150.

    See Carpenter 2010, pp 24–26; DeLaet 2007, p 128. See also see also Ongwen Victims Closing Brief 2020, above n 114, para 105.

  151. 151.

    See Carpenter 2010, pp 28–33; Coulter 2009, p 235.

  152. 152.

    This distinction is also drawn by De Vos 2016.

  153. 153.

    See also De Vos 2020; Grey 2017, p 907.

  154. 154.

    United Nations Security Council 2018, para 13.

  155. 155.

    United Nations Security Council 2019a, para 17.

  156. 156.

    See United Nations General Assembly 2019, paras 21, 44.

  157. 157.

    See generally Goldstein 1993.

  158. 158.

    World Health Organization, Maternal Mortality, 19 September 2019, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality (accessed 24 October 2020).

  159. 159.

    See Kotsadam and Østby 2019; Urdal and Che 2013. See also Paul 2008, p 191.

  160. 160.

    United Nations Population Fund, Maternal Mortality in Humanitarian Crises and in Fragile Settings, 12 November 2015, https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/MMR_in_humanitarian_settings-final4_0.pdf (accessed 24 October 2020).

  161. 161.

    World Health Organization et al. 2015, p 26.

  162. 162.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 256.

  163. 163.

    See De Brouwer 2005, p 144; Goldstein 1993, pp 17–18; Paul 2008, pp 190–191; Schwarz 2019, p 256.

  164. 164.

    See Carpenter 2010, p 27; EC Investigative Mission Into the Treatment of Treatment of Muslim Women in the Former Yugoslavia 1993, para 15. See also Ongwen Victims Closing Brief 2020, above n 114, para 105.

  165. 165.

    See Carpenter 2000, p 223; De Brouwer 2005, p 144; EC Investigative Mission Into the Treatment of Treatment of Muslim Women in the Former Yugoslavia 1993, para 15; Goldstein 1993, p 21; Greve 2008, p 33; Leatherman 2011, p 49; United Nations Security Council 2019a, para 20. See also Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2.2.

  166. 166.

    See Greve 2008, p 33; Grey 2017, p 907; Leatherman 2011, p 49; United Nations Security Council 2019a, para 20.

  167. 167.

    See also Kuschnik 2009, p 354 (with regard to the ostracization of the victims); Schwarz 2019, pp 256–257.

  168. 168.

    See Greve 2008, p 33; Grey 2017, p 907. See also Ongwen Victims Closing Brief 2020, above n 114, para 95.

  169. 169.

    See Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3.2.2.

  170. 170.

    See Grey 2017, p 906, footnote 5.

  171. 171.

    See D’Costa and Hossain 2010, pp 342–343, footnote 37.

  172. 172.

    Askin 1997, p 397.

  173. 173.

    D’Costa and Hossain 2010, p 343.

  174. 174.

    Grey 2017, p 906; see also Laverty and De Vos 2020.

  175. 175.

    See also De Vos 2020.

  176. 176.

    See Wapler 2018.

  177. 177.

    See Büchler 2017, p 5. See also Grey forthcoming, p 4.

  178. 178.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014, p 3.

  179. 179.

    See Montoya 2019, p 38: “Reproductive violence is related to, but also distinct from, sexual violence.” Similarly, Dieneke de Vos clarified that reproductive violence is “connected to but also different from” sexualized violence, because of the uniqueness of the inflicted harms, see De Vos 2020. But see also Grey forthcoming, p 5, categorizing reproductive violence as a sub-set of sexual violence.

  180. 180.

    See also De Vos 2016, asserting that the distinction between sexualized and reproductive violence is “arbitrary”, as all forms of sexualized violence can have serious consequences on reproductive health.

  181. 181.

    See Wapler 2018, p 191.

  182. 182.

    See Grey 2017, p 909, footnote 18.

  183. 183.

    See also Grey forthcoming, p 4.

  184. 184.

    United Nations Commission for the Investigation of War Crimes 1943, p 5.

  185. 185.

    See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.2.3.

  186. 186.

    For the potential to prosecute and punish reproductive violence under the ICC Statute, see Chap. 4 (genocide) and Chaps. 5 and 6 (crimes against humanity and war crimes).

  187. 187.

    Count 3(A): “murder and ill-treatment of civilian population of or in occupied territory and on the High Seas”, Charter of the International Military Tribunal, Annex to the Agreement by the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Government of the United States of America, the Provisional Government of the French Republic and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis, 8 August 1945 (IMT Charter), Article 6(b).

  188. 188.

    Count 4(A): “murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against civilian populations before and during the war”, ibid., Article 6(c).

  189. 189.

    International Military Tribunal, The United States of America, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics v Hermann Wilhelm Göring et al., Indictment, 1945, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal, vol 1, p 45 (war crimes), p 66 (crimes against humanity, referring to the facts set out in regard of war crimes).

  190. 190.

    International Military Tribunal, The United States of America, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics v Hermann Wilhelm Göring et al., Judgment, 1 October 1946, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (IMT Judgment 1946), vol 1, p 252. At p 260, the judgment also refers to forced abortion of Jewish women who were subjected to forced labour, but does not go into detail.

  191. 191.

    IMT Transcripts 1945–1946, above n 28, vol 5, p 403.

  192. 192.

    Ibid., vol 6, pp 196, 211–212; vol 8, pp 136, 309–314; vol 11, p 405; vol 15, p 667; vol 16, pp 45–46; vol 19, pp 498–499; vol 20, pp 272–273, 547–549; vol 22, pp 195, 300.

  193. 193.

    Ibid., vol 6, pp 211–212.

  194. 194.

    Ibid., vol 8, p 310.

  195. 195.

    IMT Judgment 1946, above n 190, p 252.

  196. 196.

    IMT Transcripts 1945–1946, above n 28, vol 6, pp 170, 212–213, 547; vol 8, pp 133, 310.

  197. 197.

    Ibid., vol 5, p 403; vol 8, p 314.

  198. 198.

    Ibid., vol 6, p 310. The nature of these experiments and their impact on the victims’ reproductive systems—and thus their categorization as reproductive violence—is unclear.

  199. 199.

    Lemkin 1944.

  200. 200.

    Raphael Lemkin Letter to the Right Honorable David Maxwell Fyfe, 26 August 1946, 1–2, in: Raphael Lemkin Collection, P-154, Box 1, Folder 18, American Jewish Historical Society, Newton Centre, MA and New York, NY, cited after Barrett 2010, p 51. See also Irvin-Erickson 2018, pp 87–92.

  201. 201.

    Lemkin 1944, pp 86–87.

  202. 202.

    See also Barrett 2010.

  203. 203.

    See also Grey 2017, pp 911–912.

  204. 204.

    Medical Case Transcripts 1946–1947, above n 19, vol 1, p 13.

  205. 205.

    Ibid., vol 1, p 11 (war crimes), p 16 (crimes against humanity, referring to the facts set out in regard of war crimes).

  206. 206.

    Ibid., vol 1, p 48.

  207. 207.

    Medical Case 1947, above n 25, vol 2, pp 223, 226.

  208. 208.

    Ibid., vol 2, pp 235–236, 238–239.

  209. 209.

    Ibid., vol 2, pp 277–279.

  210. 210.

    Ibid., vol 2, p 241 (Mrugowsky), p 294 (Oberheuser).

  211. 211.

    Ibid., vol 2, pp 195–196 (Karl Brandt), pp 250–251 (Poppendick), pp 292–294 (Pokorny).

  212. 212.

    United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Oswald Pohl et al., Transcripts, 1947, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals, vol 5, pp 205–206 (war crimes), p 207 (crimes against humanity, referring to the facts set out in regard of war crimes).

  213. 213.

    Pohl Case 1947, above n 27, vol 5, p 971.

  214. 214.

    Ibid., vol 5, p 988.

  215. 215.

    Ibid., vol 5, pp 1117–1119.

  216. 216.

    Ibid., vol 5, p 1087.

  217. 217.

    See generally Grey 2017, pp 912–913.

  218. 218.

    RuSHA Case 1948, above n 26, vol 5, p 121.

  219. 219.

    United States Military Tribunal Nuernberg, The United States of America v Ulrich Greifelt et al., Transcripts, 1947–1948, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (RuSHA Case Transcripts 1947–1948), vol 4, pp 613–614 (crimes against humanity), pp 617–618 (war crimes, referring to the facts set out in regard of war crimes).

  220. 220.

    Ibid., vol 4, p 689 (with regard to forced sterilizations), see also p 687 with regard to forced abortions.

  221. 221.

    For extracts from the evidence see ibid., vol 4, pp 686–687, pp 1076–1100 (forced abortion), pp 1121–1139 (forced sterilization).

  222. 222.

    Ulrich Greifelt, Otto Hofmann, Richard Hildebrandt, Werner Lorenz, and Heinz Brückner, see RuSHA Case 1948, above n 26, vol 5, pp 120–125, 154–164.

  223. 223.

    Otto Hofmann and Richard Hildebrandt, ibid., vol 5, pp 109–112, 154–164.

  224. 224.

    Ibid., vol 5, pp 109–112.

  225. 225.

    Ibid., vol 5, p 112.

  226. 226.

    Ibid.

  227. 227.

    Ibid., vol 5, p 128.

  228. 228.

    United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 7, pp 11–26.

  229. 229.

    Ibid., vol 7, pp 82, 89.

  230. 230.

    Ibid., vol 7, p 14.

  231. 231.

    Ibid., vol 7, p 17.

  232. 232.

    For biographical details, see District Court of Jerusalem, Attorney General v Adolf Eichmann, Judgment, 11 December 1961, Criminal Case no. 40/61 (Eichmann 1961), paras 59–67. See also Krause 2002, p 25. See generally Arendt 2006, originally published 1963.

  233. 233.

    See Arendt 2006, originally published 1963, pp 238–241.

  234. 234.

    Eichmann 1961, above n 232, para 4.

  235. 235.

    Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law 5710-1950, 1 August 1950, sec. 1(b)(4); compare: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, opened for signature 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS 278 (entered into force 12 January 1951) (Genocide Convention), Article II(d). See Hausner 1962, pp 124–125.

  236. 236.

    Hausner 1962, p 125.

  237. 237.

    Eichmann 1961, above n 232, para 158 (“[I]t is not at all impossible that this matter was handled at a higher level.”), para 199. On the Medical Case, see this chapter, Sect. 3.3.2.2.

  238. 238.

    Ibid., paras 159, 199.

  239. 239.

    Ibid., para 244(4).

  240. 240.

    Supreme Court of Israel, Attorney General v Adolf Eichmann, Appeals Judgment, 29 May 1962, Criminal Appeal 336/61.

  241. 241.

    Genocide Convention, above n 235, Article II(d).

  242. 242.

    See Adams 2013, p 128; De Brouwer 2005, pp 43–44; Jeßberger 2009, p 101; Schabas 2009, p 197; Schwarz 2019, p 155.

  243. 243.

    See Jeßberger 2009, p 101; Kreß 2018, marginal no 58.

  244. 244.

    See Grey 2017, p 913; Schabas 2009, p 198.

  245. 245.

    United Nations Economic and Social Council 1947, pp 6, 26; see also Schabas 2009, p 197.

  246. 246.

    See De Brouwer 2005, pp 43–44.

  247. 247.

    Grey 2017, p 913.

  248. 248.

    See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.4.2.

  249. 249.

    ICTR, Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T (Akayesu 1998), paras 507–508. See also ICTR, Prosecutor v Clément Kayishema and Obed Ruzindana, Judgment, 21 May 1999, ICTR-95-1-T, para 117; ICTR, Prosecutor v Georges Anderson Nderubumwe Rutaganda, Judgment, 6 December 1999, ICTR-96-3-T, para 53, concurring with the Chamber’s explanations in Akayesu.

  250. 250.

    Grey 2017, p 917.

  251. 251.

    Akayesu 1998, above n 249, paras 121, 159, 428.

  252. 252.

    Ibid., para 437.

  253. 253.

    See Grey 2017, pp 916–918.

  254. 254.

    See this chapter, Sect. 3.2.1.5.

  255. 255.

    See generally Verrall 2016, pp 328–329. See also De Vos 2016.

  256. 256.

    ICTY, Prosecutor v Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić, Review of the Indictments Pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 11 July 1996, IT-95-5-R61 and IT-95-18-R61 (Karadžić and Mladić Review of Indictments 1996), para 64.

  257. 257.

    Ibid., para 94.

  258. 258.

    Verrall 2016, p 329.

  259. 259.

    ICTY, Prosecutor v Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovač and Zoran Vuković, Judgment, 22 February 2001, IT-96-23-T and IT-96-23/1-T, para 342, see also paras 583, 654.

  260. 260.

    ICTY, Prosecutor v Radoslav Brđanin, Judgment, 1 September 2004, IT-99-36-T, para 1011.

  261. 261.

    Special Court for Sierra Leone, Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu, Judgment, 20 June 2007, SCSL-04-16-T, paras 1080–1081, 1091, 1097, 1113–1114, 1184. See also Dissenting Opinion by Judge Teresa Doherty, paras 30, 42–43, 49, citing evidence of forced impregnations and pregnancies as evidence for forced marriage, which in her view constituted a separate crime against humanity. See particularly para 49: “On the evidence I find that the intention of the ‘husband’ was to obligate the victim to work and care for him and his property, to fulfil his sexual needs, remain faithful and loyal to him and to bear children if the ‘wife’ became pregnant.”

  262. 262.

    Brima et al. 2008, above n 143, para 195. See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.6.1.

  263. 263.

    Ibid., para 190.

  264. 264.

    Rape was only charged in the context of forced marriages, which Oosterveld and Sellers identified as a grave shortcoming of the proceedings, see Oosterveld and Sellers 2016, p 343.

  265. 265.

    Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Prosecutor v Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary, Khieu Samphan, Ieng Thirith and Kaing Guek Eav, Order on Request for Investigative Action Concerning Forced Marriages and Forced Sexual Relations, 18 December 2009, 002/19-09-2007-ECCC-OCIJ, paras 1–3; see also Oosterveld and Sellers 2016, pp 326–327.

  266. 266.

    Nuon et al. Closing Order 2010, above n 50, paras 842–860, 1442–1447. “Enforced procreation” is referred to at para 1445.

  267. 267.

    Nuon and Samphan 2018, above n 48, paras 3522–3701. It is noteworthy, however, that the ECCC’s definition of rape does not capture rape committed against men in the context of forced marriages, see para 731. Although the Chamber went on to consider whether inhumane acts were committed against men in the form of (other) sexual violence, it briefly stated that it was unable to reach a finding on the seriousness of this conduct and its impact on male victims, see para 3701. The underlying assumption that men would suffer less from forced sexual intercourse than women is deeply problematic. See generally on the definition of rape for the purposes of the ECCC Oosterveld and Sellers 2016, pp 334–347.

  268. 268.

    Nuon and Samphan 2018, above n 48, para 3690; see also Elander 2016, p 170; Grey 2018.

  269. 269.

    See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.6.1.

  270. 270.

    Nuon et al. Closing Order 2010, above n 50, para 1445.

  271. 271.

    Grey forthcoming, p 3.

  272. 272.

    Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Prosecutor v Ao An and Yim Tith, Consolidated Decision on the Requests for Investigative Action Concerning the Crime of Forced Pregnancy and Forced Impregnation, 13 June 2016, 004/07-09-2009-ECCC-OCIJ (Ao An and Yim Tith Decision on Investigative Requests 2016), paras 8, 11.

  273. 273.

    Ibid., para 31.

  274. 274.

    Ongwen 2021, above n 111.

  275. 275.

    See Grey 2017, p 908.

  276. 276.

    Askin 1997, pp 88–91.

  277. 277.

    Ibid., pp 91–93.

  278. 278.

    Ibid., pp 92–93.

  279. 279.

    She also did not differentiate between direct intent (dolus directus) and indirect intent (dolus eventualis).

  280. 280.

    Askin 1997, p 273.

  281. 281.

    Ibid., pp 274–275.

  282. 282.

    Askin 2004, p 54.

  283. 283.

    Askin 2004, p 55.

  284. 284.

    Askin 2004, pp 53–54.

  285. 285.

    Askin 2003, p 512.

  286. 286.

    Askin 1999, p 120, footnote 107.

  287. 287.

    Askin 2003, pp 512–513.

  288. 288.

    Askin 2004, p 55.

  289. 289.

    See Dowds 2020, pp 126–129.

  290. 290.

    Charlesworth 1999, p 387.

  291. 291.

    See Chap. 4, Sect. 4.2.2 and 4.2.3.

  292. 292.

    MacKinnon 1994, p 13.

  293. 293.

    Goldstein 1993, p 28.

  294. 294.

    Copelon 1994, p 263.

  295. 295.

    Green et al. 1994.

  296. 296.

    Ibid., p 236.

  297. 297.

    Ibid., p 237.

  298. 298.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 July 2002) (ICC Statute), Article 7(1)(g); Article 8(2)(b)(xxii) and Article 8(2)(e)(vi).

  299. 299.

    Boon 2000, pp 656–657. See also Drake 2012; Markovic 2007; Soh 2006.

  300. 300.

    Grey 2017, p 929. More recently, see also Grey forthcoming, on reproductive crimes more broadly.

  301. 301.

    Grey 2017, p 930.

  302. 302.

    Ibid., p 918.

  303. 303.

    Ibid.

  304. 304.

    See this chapter, Sect. 3.2.1.10.

  305. 305.

    ICC Statute, above n 298, Article 7(1)(k).

  306. 306.

    Ibid., Article 7(1)(g).

  307. 307.

    Ibid., Article 6(d).

  308. 308.

    De Vos 2016.

  309. 309.

    Scott 2010, pp 17–18.

  310. 310.

    Ibid.

  311. 311.

    Askin 1997, p 380.

  312. 312.

    Ibid., pp 397–403.

  313. 313.

    Ibid., pp 380–391.

  314. 314.

    Ibid., pp 392–393.

  315. 315.

    Ibid., pp 393–397.

  316. 316.

    Ibid., p 397.

  317. 317.

    Ibid., pp 398–399.

  318. 318.

    Ibid., p 399.

  319. 319.

    Ibid., p 402.

  320. 320.

    ICC Statute, above n 298, Article 7(2)(f). See Chap. 5, Sect. 5.5.

  321. 321.

    Askin 1997, pp 399–400.

  322. 322.

    Ibid., p 401.

  323. 323.

    Ibid.

  324. 324.

    ICC Statute, above n 298, Article 30(2)(b), (3). See Chap. 6, Sect. 6.2.

  325. 325.

    Askin 1997, pp 401–402.

  326. 326.

    Ibid., p 402.

  327. 327.

    The crime against humanity of gender-based persecution is an innovation of the ICC Statute, above n 298, Article 7(1)(h), and as such did not exist at the time of Askin’s writing.

  328. 328.

    Genocide Convention, above n 235, Article II.

  329. 329.

    Askin 1997, p 403.

  330. 330.

    Ibid., p 398.

  331. 331.

    Ongwen 2021, above n 111, para 2717. See also Grey 2017, pp 913, 918.

  332. 332.

    See also Grey 2017, pp 913, 918.

  333. 333.

    See Chap. 1, Sect. 1.4.1.2.

  334. 334.

    International Conference on Population and Development Programme of Action, 13 September 1994, para 7.3, reinforced by Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, 15 September 1995 (Beijing Declaration), Declaration para 29, Platform for Action para 95.

  335. 335.

    Final Act of the International Conference on Human Rights, Teheran, 22 April to 13 May 1968, Resolution XVIII, para 3.

  336. 336.

    See Berro Pizzarossa 2018, pp 2–5; Grey forthcoming, p 9.

  337. 337.

    See Wersig 2012, p 211. On the neo-colonial aspects of the population control policy and coercive birth control programs, see Kuumba 1993.

  338. 338.

    See Berro Pizzarossa 2018, p 6; Büchler 2017, p 11. See also Wapler 2018, p 186. On the negotiations during the conference, see Zulficar 1994–1995, pp 1025–1029. On the emergence of the concept of reproductive health under international human rights law, see generally Eriksson 2001, pp 6–10.

  339. 339.

    See Klein and Wapler 2019, p 20.

  340. 340.

    See Oja and Yamin 2016, p 66.

  341. 341.

    See Berro Pizzarossa 2018, pp 8–9. See generally Cook 1994–1995.

  342. 342.

    See Wapler 2018, p 186.

  343. 343.

    Grey forthcoming, p 11.

  344. 344.

    Beijing Declaration, above n 334, Declaration para 17.

  345. 345.

    Ibid., Platform for Action para 95.

  346. 346.

    Ibid., Platform for Action paras 95–96: “The human rights of women include their right to have control over and decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free of coercion, discrimination and violence” (at para 96).

  347. 347.

    See Wapler 2018, p 187.

  348. 348.

    See Klein and Wapler 2019, p 21.

  349. 349.

    See ibid.; see also Beijing Declaration, above n 334, Platform for Action para 95.

  350. 350.

    Convention on the Rights of Persons With Disabilities, opened for signature 30 March 2007, 2515 UNTS 3 (entered into force 3 May 2008) (CRPD).

  351. 351.

    See also United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1994, para 21: “The responsibilities that women have to bear and raise children affect their right of access to education, employment and other activities related to their personal development. They also impose inequitable burdens of work on women. The number and spacing of their children have a similar impact on women’s lives and also affect their physical and mental health, as well as that of their children. For these reasons, women are entitled to decide on the number and spacing of their children.”

  352. 352.

    World Population Plan of Action, 19–30 August 1974, paras 14(f), 29(a), see also Berro Pizzarossa 2018, pp 3–4; Grey forthcoming, pp 9–10.

  353. 353.

    Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Violence Against Women, opened for signature 18 December 1979, 1249 UNTS 13 (entered into force 3 September 1981) (CEDAW Convention), Articles 10(h), 14(2)(b); CRPD, above n 350, Article 23(1)(b).

  354. 354.

    CEDAW Convention, above n 353, Articles 12, 14(2)(b); CRPD, above n 350, Article 25(a).

  355. 355.

    Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, opened for signature 11 July 2003 (entered into force 25 November 2005), Article 14.

  356. 356.

    See also Klimke 2019, pp 101–102.

  357. 357.

    See Zampas and Gher 2008, p 250.

  358. 358.

    See generally Klein and Wapler 2019, pp 20–22; United Nations Population Fund et al. 2014.

  359. 359.

    International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 19 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976) (ICCPR), Article 6(1); Universal Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Resolution 217A(III), UN Doc. A/RES/217(III), 10 December 1948 (Universal Declaration of Human Rights), Article 3.

  360. 360.

    CEDAW Convention, above n 353, Articles 12, 14(2); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, opened for signature 19 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3 (entered into force 3 January 1976) (ICESCR), Article 12; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, above n 359, Article 25.

  361. 361.

    ICCPR, above n 359, Article 9(1); Universal Declaration of Human Rights, above n 359, Article 3.

  362. 362.

    ICCPR, above n 359, Article 7; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, above n 359, Article 5.

  363. 363.

    European Convention on Human Rights, opened for signature 4 November 1950, ETS no. 005 (entered into force 3 September 1953), Article 8(1); ICCPR, above n 359, Article 17. According to the European Court of Human Rights, the right to privacy under the ECHR extends to the decision to become and not to become a parent, see European Court of Human Rights, Evans v The United Kingdom, Grand Chamber Judgment, 10 April 2007, no. 6339/05, para 71. For an analysis of the Court’s jurisdiction on reproductive issues, see generally Oja and Yamin 2016.

  364. 364.

    CEDAW Convention, above n 353, Articles 1–3; ICCPR, above n 359, Articles 2(1), 3, 26; ICESCR, above n 360, Articles 2(2), 3; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, above n 359, Article 2.

  365. 365.

    United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2016, para 3, building upon General Comment No. 14 (2000).

  366. 366.

    Statement by Michael Windfuhr at a panel discussion on Women’s Rights in UN Human Rights Treaties at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 22 May 2019.

  367. 367.

    United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2016, para 1.

  368. 368.

    Ibid., para 10. See also Berro Pizzarossa 2018, p 11.

  369. 369.

    United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2016, paras 11–21. See also United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2000, paras 14, 21.

  370. 370.

    United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2016, paras 28, 45.

  371. 371.

    Ibid., paras 28, 34, 40.

  372. 372.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1999, para 31(b).

  373. 373.

    Ibid., para 31(c).

  374. 374.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2017, para 29(c)(i).

  375. 375.

    United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons With Disabilities and United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2018.

  376. 376.

    United Nations Human Rights Committee 2018, para 8.

  377. 377.

    Ibid.

  378. 378.

    Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe 2008.

  379. 379.

    Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights 2017, pp 9–14 (see particularly recommendation V at p 11). See also Klein and Wapler 2019, p 22.

  380. 380.

    United Nations General Assembly 2015, goals 3.7 and 5.6.

  381. 381.

    Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights 2017, p 18; United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons With Disabilities and United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2018.

  382. 382.

    United Nations Security Council 2019b.

  383. 383.

    Ibid., para 16.

  384. 384.

    Ibid., para 18.

  385. 385.

    See Gramer and Lynch, How a U.N. Bid to Prevent Sexual Violence Turned Into a Spat Over Abortion, Foreign Policy, 23 April 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/23/united-nations-bid-end-sexual-violence-rape-support-survivors-spat-trump-administration-sexual-reproductive-health-dispute-abortion-internal-state-department-cable/ (accessed 24 October 2020).

  386. 386.

    See also Chap. 2, Sect. 2.5.2.

  387. 387.

    Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 25 June 1993, II para 38.

  388. 388.

    Beijing Declaration, above n 334, Platform for Action paras 11, 114.

  389. 389.

    Ibid., Platform for Action paras 11, 115.

  390. 390.

    Ibid., Platform for Action para 115. See also Eriksson 2000, pp 252–259.

  391. 391.

    United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1995, para 5; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1996, para 5; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1997a, para 4; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1998a, para 4; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1999, paras 5–6; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2001, para 11; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2002, para 15; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2003, para 15; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2004, para 16; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2005, para 18.

  392. 392.

    United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1997b, para 13(a); United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1998b, para 13(a).

  393. 393.

    Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, opened for signature 11 May 2011, CETS no. 210 (entered into force 1 August 2014), Article 39.

  394. 394.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1993, para 22.

  395. 395.

    Ibid., para 24(m). See also Eriksson 2000, pp 252–253.

  396. 396.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1994, para 22.

  397. 397.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2013, para 34.

  398. 398.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2017, para 18.

  399. 399.

    United Nations Human Rights Committee 2000, para 11.

  400. 400.

    See Eriksson 2002, p 131 (see also footnote 69).

  401. 401.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1993, para 1, repeated and expanded in United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2017. See also Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 146; McQuigg 2018, pp 307–308; United Nations General Assembly 2019, para 21.

  402. 402.

    See Eriksson 2000, pp 324–329.

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    Tanja Altunjan

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Altunjan, T. (2021). Historical Perspectives on Reproductive Violence in International Law. In: Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law. International Criminal Justice Series, vol 29. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-451-8_3

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