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Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law

Part of the book series: International Criminal Justice Series ((ICJS,volume 29))

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Abstract

Reproductive violence is prevalent in accounts of conflict scenarios from around the world and throughout history. Nevertheless, this type of gender-based violence has rarely come to the attention of international prosecutors and judges. In fact, though the related phenomenon of conflict-related sexualized violence is regularly condemned by the international community and increasingly addressed in international criminal trials, reproductive violence remains in the shadows. Against this background, this book aims to evaluate the historical development and current potentials of international criminal law to address different manifestations of conflict-related reproductive violence. This first chapter provides an overview on the aim and structure of the book. It also offers definitions for key concepts and describes the theoretical and methodological background upon which the subsequent chapters are built.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014.

  2. 2.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Judgment, 4 February 2021, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen 2021), paras 2717–2729, 3056–3062; ICC, Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 23 March 2016, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen 2016), paras 96–101.

  3. 3.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 July 2002) (ICC Statute), as a crime against humanity Article 7(1)(g); as a war crime Article 8(2)(b)(xxii) and Article 8(2)(e)(vi).

  4. 4.

    Ibid., Article 7(2)(f).

  5. 5.

    Grey forthcoming, p 5.

  6. 6.

    Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, opened for signature 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS 278 (entered into force 12 January 1951) (Genocide Convention).

  7. 7.

    World Health Organization, Gender and Health, https://www.who.int/health-topics/gender (accessed 24 October 2020). See also Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, opened for signature 11 May 2011, CETS no. 210 (entered into force 1 August 2014) (Istanbul Convention), Article 3(c): “‘[G]ender’ shall mean the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for women and men”.

  8. 8.

    See also Adamietz 2011, p 23; Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, p 3; Durham and O’Byrne 2010, pp 32–34; Kappler 2019, pp 32–36; Odio-Benito 2005, pp 165–166.

  9. 9.

    de Beauvoir 1949. Without explicitly using the terms, Simone de Beauvoir understood the category “woman” independently from anatomical characteristics. The translation of her famous statement in this regard—“On ne naît pas femme, on le deviant.”—has been controversial. The most commonly used English version originates from the 1953 translation by H.M. Parshley: “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” See also Kappler 2019, pp 32–33; Künzel 2012, pp 67–69.

  10. 10.

    See International Committee of the Red Cross 2004, p 7; International Law Commission 2019, paras 41–42; The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014, p 3; United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2010, para 5. See also Grey et al. 2019, pp 966–968 with further references.

  11. 11.

    See Odio-Benito 2005, p 166; Schwarz 2019, p 36.

  12. 12.

    See illustratively Constitutional Court of Germany, Decision, 10 October 2017, 1 BvR 2019/16 (Dritte Option 2017), para 9. See also Baer 2004, pp 25–26; Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, pp 3–4. In this regard, it deserves emphasis that the sex/gender binary is increasingly being questioned and replaced with an understanding of both concepts in a fluid, socially constructed manner, which challenges traditional feminist approaches to international law, see McNeilly 2019. See generally Butler 1990.

  13. 13.

    Pertaining to German law, the German Constitutional Court ruled that the legislator must account for a “third option” when assigning a legal status, which has led to the adoption of a law introducing the category “diverse” beyond the traditional categories “male” and “female”, as well as the option to refrain from categorization. See Dritte Option 2017, above n 12; Gesetz zur Änderung der in das Geburtenregister einzutragenden Angaben (Law Changing the Information to be Entered Into the Birth Register), 2018 I Bundesgesetzblatt 2635, 18 December 2018. See generally Schmidt 2012.

  14. 14.

    ICC Statute, above n 3, Article 7(3): “For the purpose of this Statute, it is understood that the term ‘gender’ refers to the two sexes, male and female, within the context of society. The term ‘gender’ does not indicate any meaning different from the above.”

  15. 15.

    See Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.5.2.

  16. 16.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014, p 3.

  17. 17.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 45. See also Grey 2019, pp 49–61, defining gender-based violence as violence committed against victims because of their gender identity, in order to affirm the perpetrator’s own gender identity, or as a form of punishment for defying gender norms. With regard to gender-based violence against women, see also Istanbul Convention, above n 7, Article 3(d), and United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1993, para 6 (“violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women disproportionately”).

  18. 18.

    See Grey 2019, p 64; Schwarz 2019, p 32.

  19. 19.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014, p 3.

  20. 20.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 36.

  21. 21.

    See Chap. 6, Sect. 6.3.1.

  22. 22.

    See Bock 2010, pp 133–134; Seifert 1993, pp 86–87; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 422. But see Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2018, challenging the dominant understanding that conflict-related rape is not about sex.

  23. 23.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 34; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1061.

  24. 24.

    See also Gaggioli 2014, p 510; Oosterveld 2009, p 416; Oosterveld 2011, p 94; Schwarz 2019, pp 45–46.

  25. 25.

    See e.g. Gaggioli 2014, p 510.

  26. 26.

    See also Grey 2019, p 64.

  27. 27.

    See e.g. Oosterveld 2009, p 416; Oosterveld 2011, pp 97–98.

  28. 28.

    See Palmer 2009, p 133.

  29. 29.

    Ongwen 2016, above n 2, para 93. See also Ongwen 2021, above n 2, para 2750.

  30. 30.

    Special Court for Sierra Leone, Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu, Appeals Judgment, 22 February 2008, SCSL-2004-16-A, para 195. On the Special Court’s jurisprudence on forced marriage, see Chap. 2, Sect. 2.4.6.1.

  31. 31.

    See e.g. United Nations Security Council 2019, para 4.

  32. 32.

    See also ibid., using the terms interchangeably.

  33. 33.

    See Markard and Adamietz 2008, p 262; Odio-Benito 2005, p 166.

  34. 34.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.1.

  35. 35.

    Most forcefully argued by Goldstein 1993. See Chap. 5, Sect. 5.2.2.1.

  36. 36.

    Ambos 2013b, p 102; Askin 1997, pp 402–403; Carpenter 2000; Cottier and Mzee 2016, marginal no 720; D’Costa and Hossain 2010, pp 343–345; Eriksson 2000, p 420; Green et al. 1994, pp 185–189; Ray 1997, pp 809, 824, 826; Rimmer 2010, p 109; Women in the Law Project 1994, pp 95, 97.

  37. 37.

    Eriksson 2000, p 322; MacKinnon 1993, pp 62, 78; Moshan 1998, pp 163–164; Ray 1997, pp 808–810; Rubio-Marín 2012, p 75.

  38. 38.

    Durham and O’Byrne 2010, p 44; MacKinnon 1993, p 76; Toy-Cronin 2010, p 585.

  39. 39.

    MacKinnon 1994, p 13.

  40. 40.

    Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Prosecutor v Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary, Khieu Samphan and Ieng Thirith, Closing Order, 15 September 2010, 002/19-09-2007-ECCC-OCIJ, para 1445.

  41. 41.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2017, para 18.

  42. 42.

    See Chap. 5, Sect. 5.2.1.

  43. 43.

    See American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 2015.

  44. 44.

    See American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 2017. On the legal misconceptions of scientific evidence and with further references, see also Frank 2019–2020.

  45. 45.

    Merriam Webster Medical Dictionary, Sterilize, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sterilize#medicalDictionary (accessed 24 October 2020).

  46. 46.

    Merriam Webster Medical Dictionary, Castrate, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/castrate#medicalDictionary (accessed 24 October 2020).

  47. 47.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 97.

  48. 48.

    Ibid., marginal no 103.

  49. 49.

    ICC Statute, above n 3, preamble para 3; see also Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 105–106.

  50. 50.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 1136–1137.

  51. 51.

    See ibid., marginal nos 1148–1151.

  52. 52.

    See ibid., marginal nos 1162–1164.

  53. 53.

    See ibid., marginal nos 1165–1166.

  54. 54.

    See ibid., marginal no 176.

  55. 55.

    See Cryer et al. 2019, p 13.

  56. 56.

    See ibid.; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 176.

  57. 57.

    See Cryer et al. 2019, p 14; Seibert-Fohr 2009, p 289.

  58. 58.

    See Cryer et al. 2019, p 13.

  59. 59.

    See ibid.; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 177–178.

  60. 60.

    See Cryer et al. 2019, pp 14–15; Seibert-Fohr 2009, pp 292–293.

  61. 61.

    See Bassiouni 1985, p 1455; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 177–183.

  62. 62.

    For example, Article I of the Genocide Convention, above n 6, obligates states to prosecute the crime of genocide. See further Seibert-Fohr 2009, pp 153–187.

  63. 63.

    See Seibert-Fohr 2009, p 278.

  64. 64.

    See ibid., pp 190–193. Seibert-Fohr identified two lines of reasoning, based on a prevention of recurrence or on an individual right of victims to an effective remedy, and criticized the notion that victims have an individual right to remedies in the form of punishment of perpetrators, see pp 206–214.

  65. 65.

    See ibid., p 294.

  66. 66.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 177–179.

  67. 67.

    See Kappler 2019, p 185; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 184.

  68. 68.

    ICC Statute, above n 3, preamble para 3.

  69. 69.

    “[D]en Panzer der staatlichen Souveränität durchbrechen”, Jescheck 1952, p 11.

  70. 70.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 110.

  71. 71.

    See generally with regard to supranational ius puniendi Ambos 2013a. See also Kappler 2019, pp 184–185; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 110 with further references.

  72. 72.

    See generally Ambos 2018, § 5 marginal nos 5–11; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 191–226.

  73. 73.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 233–248.

  74. 74.

    Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331 (entered into force 27 January 1980).

  75. 75.

    See generally Kappler 2019, pp 77–81; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 227–232.

  76. 76.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 208.

  77. 77.

    See ibid., marginal no 236.

  78. 78.

    Charlesworth et al. 1991.

  79. 79.

    Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, p 60. See also Charlesworth et al. 1991, p 615: “International law is a thoroughly gendered system.”

  80. 80.

    Odio-Benito 2005, p 166; see also Durham and O’Byrne 2010.

  81. 81.

    Chappell 2016, p 3.

  82. 82.

    See Charlesworth 1999, pp 381–383.

  83. 83.

    Copelon 1994.

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Altunjan, T. (2021). Introduction. In: Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law. International Criminal Justice Series, vol 29. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-451-8_1

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