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Delegitimising the Adversary: Understanding Actor and Audience Analysis as a Tool to Influence and Persuade

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Netherlands Annual Review of Military Studies 2017

Part of the book series: NL ARMS ((NLARMS))

Abstract

Influence and persuasion are gaining increased attention in warfare, but often social psychology approaches remain underused or neglected while this academic field has provided useful insights into this approach, especially as a non-kinetic capability. To effectively influence and persuade, we need to understand the adversary and the specific frame of reference of the relevant audience, which can be determined through Actor and Audience Analysis (AAA), a relatively new tool that has shown promising results. Based on the results of AAA, the communicator’s characteristics and persuasion techniques must be tailored to the specific audience. This chapter will use delegitimisation of the adversary, specifically in the context of extremism and terrorism, as an example to demonstrate how influence and persuasion can be applied in a military context.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cohen 2016.

  2. 2.

    See for example isisnotinmyname.com. Accessed 7 December 2016.

  3. 3.

    See for example Knopf 2010, pp. 1–33; Knopf 2012, pp. 21–45; Wilner 2010a; Wilner 2010b; Wilner 2011; Wilner 2012; Wilner 2013; Long and Wilner 2014; Wilner 2015a, b.

  4. 4.

    Davis 2010, pp. 1–2, 19–25; Gross Stein 2012, pp. 51–52; Kroenig & Pavel 2012, pp. 23–24; Rid 2012, pp. 127–128; Miller 2013, pp. 134–139.

  5. 5.

    NATO AJP-01(D) 2010, nr. 0407; NATO AJP-5 2013, nr. 0211. See also Chap. 9 by Ducheine, Van Haaster and Van Harskamp in this volume.

  6. 6.

    Schaefer 2007, p. 357.

  7. 7.

    Rashotte 2007, p. 4427; Andersen and Taylor 2008, p. 513; Perloff 2010, p. 13; Northouse 2013, p. 9.

  8. 8.

    Schelling 1966, pp. 2–6; Byman and Waxman 2002, p. 1; Bratton 2005, p. 99; Jakobsen 2010, pp. 279–281.

  9. 9.

    Byman and Waxman 2002, pp. 3–9; Bratton 2005, p. 103; Jakobsen 2010, p. 279; Jakobsen 2011, p. 155; George and Smoke 1974, p. 11; Johnson et al. 2002, pp. 13–14; Thies 2003, p. 243; Bowen 2004, p. 58; Sperandai 2006, p. 253; Heuser 2010, p. 465.

  10. 10.

    See for example Perloff 2010, pp. 17–19; Ledgerwood et al. 2014, p. 533.

  11. 11.

    This chapter is based on the Yale Communication Model, which analyses the audience (whom), the role of the communicator (who) and the message (what and means). See Hovland et al. 1953. For modern applications, see for example Bordens and Horowitz 2002, pp. 217–231; Maio and Haddock 2007, pp. 569–570; Perloff 2010, pp. 126–127.

  12. 12.

    See for example Suchman 1995, p. 574; Toros 2008, pp. 407–426; Beetham 2012, p. 123; Lamb 2014, p. 17.

  13. 13.

    Kelman 2001.

  14. 14.

    See for example McBride 2011; Benard 2011; Kalmonick 2012; Benard 2015.

  15. 15.

    Wilner 2011, pp. 26–27; Long and Wilner 2014, pp. 127–128; Wilner 2015a, pp. 66–68; Wilner 2015b, pp. 445, 449.

  16. 16.

    For rational actor theory, see for example Schelling 1960; Schelling 1966. For strategic culture, see Johnston 1995; Sheehan 2010, p. 171; Walton 2012, p. 321; Lantis and Howlett 2013, pp. 80–82.

  17. 17.

    For rational actor theory see Lebow and Gross Stein 1989; Davis 2012, pp. 70–71; Gross Stein 2012, pp. 51–52; Miller 2013, pp. 139–140; Sauer 2015, p. 113. Rational actor theory has also been criticised as a psychological approach, see for example McAllister and Schmid 2011, p. 222; Rogers 2011, pp. 38–40. For strategic culture, see Booth 1981, p. 15; Coskun 2007; Bunn 2007, pp. 1–8; Long 2009; Toje 2009; Williams and Covarrubias 2009, p. 267; Echevarria 2011, pp. 431–445.

  18. 18.

    Byman 1998, pp. 149–169; Davis and Jenkins 2004; Jenkins 2006; Fussey 2011, p. 174; McAllister and Schmid 2011, p. 260; Davis 2014.

  19. 19.

    Wilner 2011, p. 4, 6; Long and Wilner 2014, pp. 152–153; Wilner 2015a, p. 17; Wilner 2015b, pp. 458–460.

  20. 20.

    Sherif 1937; Eagly and Chaiken 1998, p. 304; Abrams and Levine 2012, pp. 62–63; Gavac et al. 2016, pp. 353–354.

  21. 21.

    Van Gorp 2007; Seese 2014; Cwalina et al. 2015, pp. 90–91; Paul et al. 2015; Tatham 2015a.

  22. 22.

    Perloff 2010, p. 13; Benard 2011; Northouse 2013, p. 9; Benard 2015.

  23. 23.

    See for example AJP-3.4.4. nrs. 0217, 0446.

  24. 24.

    See for example Bjorgo 2013, pp. 10, 26; Koehler 2015, p. 135.

  25. 25.

    See for example Bjorgo 2013, pp. 6–9; Braddock 2014, p. 62; El-Said 2015, pp. 10–11; Koehler 2015, p. 135.

  26. 26.

    Schmid 2013; El-Said 2015, pp. 10–11.

  27. 27.

    Jacobson 2010; Fink and El-Said 2011; Sim 2013; Clubb 2014, pp. 842–861; Cronin 2009, pp. 61–62; Della Porta 2009, pp. 66–87; Haniff Bin Hassan 2012, pp. 358–384.

  28. 28.

    See for example AJP-3.10.1(a) 2007 (NATO); FM 3-53 2013 (United States of America); AJP-3.10.1 2014 (United Kingdom). In the United States of America the term PsyOps has been replaced by Military Information Support Operations (MISO).

  29. 29.

    Interview with Meike Wolf, Senior Actor and Audience Analyst at the Dutch Civil and Military Interaction Command (1 CMI-Commando).

  30. 30.

    Tatham 2013, 2015a; Tatham and Giles 2015. For other models, see for example Boslaugh et al. 2005; Paul et al. 2015, pp. 171–172 (on audience segmentation), and Jackson 2009, pp. 216–217; Mac Ginty 2010; Paul et al. 2015, pp. 172–173 (on social network analysis).

  31. 31.

    Bordens and Horowitz 2002a, b, pp. 231–232; Tatham 2015a, pp. 21–25.

  32. 32.

    See for example Bordens and Horowitz 2002a, b; Maio and Haddock 2007; Hitlin and Pinkston 2013; Petty et al. 2013.

  33. 33.

    See for example Archetti 2013, pp. 118–122; Bjorgo 2013, pp. 9–13; Medina and Hepner 2013; Bosi and Della Porta 2015, pp. 83–84.

  34. 34.

    McAllister and Schmid 2011, pp. 214–260; Schmid 2013, p. 4; Bosi and Della Porta 2015, pp. 83–86; Ferguson 2016, p. 3.

  35. 35.

    Tatham 2015a, pp. 27–29.

  36. 36.

    Ibid. See also Tatham 2015b.

  37. 37.

    Interview with Meike Wolf.

  38. 38.

    See for example Spaaij 2012, p. 47; Lowe 2014, p. 30; Alimi et al. 2015, p. 11. Note that not all radicals become terrorist or violent extremists—it is a cognitive process that can lead to the use of violence.

  39. 39.

    See for example Schmid 2013; Dzhekova et al. 2016; Veldhuis and Staun 2009; Borum 2011; Christmann 2012; Young et al 2013; Kundnani 2015.

  40. 40.

    Rahimullah et al. 2013; Kruglanski et al. 2014; Dzhekova et al. 2016, p. 22.

  41. 41.

    For examples on how measures are tailored to the specific audience, see Veenkamp and Zeiger 2015.

  42. 42.

    Note that authors tend to differentiate between de-radicalisation (changing beliefs) and disengagement (changing behaviour), since some persons may disengage from violence but maintain radical thoughts and beliefs. See for example Metz and Millen 2004; Gompert 2007, p. 44; Horgan 2009; Fink and El-Said 2011; Clubb 2014; Jasparro 2015, p. 95.

  43. 43.

    Bjorgo 2002, pp. 11–13; Bjorgo 2009, pp. 30–48; Noricks 2009, pp. 301–304; Rabasa et al. 2010, pp. 11–12; Dalfgaard-Nielsen 2013; Altier et al. 2014; Bertram 2015.

  44. 44.

    Drezner 1999, p. 188; Byman and Waxman 2002, pp. 231, 227; Jakobsen 2011, p. 156; Motwani 2012, p. 14; Bjorgo 2013, p. 90.

  45. 45.

    Barrelle 2014.

  46. 46.

    Barrelle 2014, p. 83.

  47. 47.

    Boer and Boehnke 2016, p. 131.

  48. 48.

    See for example Jenkins et al. 2015; Mazarr 2015; Voelz 2015; Bunker 2016.

  49. 49.

    More on this from a counter- and de-radicalisation perspective can be read in El-Said 2015, pp. 1–11: ‘soft measures (…) have yielded more benefits than purely kinetic approaches (…) particularly in reducing the rates of terrorist incidences’.

  50. 50.

    Rashotte 2007, p. 4426; Forsyth 2013, p. 305.

  51. 51.

    Perloff 2010, p. 13.

  52. 52.

    Cialdini 2007, 2011.

  53. 53.

    For an extensive overview of theories of influence and persuasion, see Paul et al. 2015, pp. 317–348.

  54. 54.

    Bordens and Horowitz 2002a, b, pp. 219–220; Rucker et al. 2015, pp. 31–32.

  55. 55.

    Borum 2004, pp. 49–50.

  56. 56.

    Petty et al. 1983; Dal Cin et al. 2004, p. 180; Cialdini 2007, pp. 171–204.

  57. 57.

    Howard 2000, p. 372; Stroink 2007, p. 298; Janoff-Bulman and Werther 2008, p. 165; Ledgerwood et al. 2014, p. 549.

  58. 58.

    Mackie and Queller 2000; Bodenhausen and Morales 2013, p. 239; Ledgerwood et al. 2014, p. 549.

  59. 59.

    Rogers 2011, pp. 37–38; Stets and Serpe 2013, p. 31; Goerzig and Al-Hashimi 2015, pp. 19–20, 32, 140–144; Rabasa and Benard 2015, pp. 29, 58; Roberts 2015, pp. 209–212.

  60. 60.

    Cialdini 2007, pp. 129–133; Wells 2015, pp. 161–162.

  61. 61.

    Dovidio et al. 2013.

  62. 62.

    Barrelle 2014, pp. 60, 101–102.

  63. 63.

    O’Brien 2008.

  64. 64.

    Espí 2015.

  65. 65.

    Data was found in the Euskobarómetro, an analysis made every year by the University of Basque Country which measures, amongst others, support for ETA. Whereas 64% of the Basque population totally rejected ETA, whereas the remaining 36% either thought that violence was justified in the past, but not in the present, or presented a total rejection of the violence. The last group still supports the goals, but not the manner in which ETA tried to achieve them. See Universidad del País Vasco 2011. For ETA’s statement, see Europa Press (2011) ETA anuncia el cese definitivo de su actividad armada (Video File). Youtube, 20 October 2011. Accessed 16 December 2016.

  66. 66.

    Clubb 2014, pp. 856–857; Sim 2013.

  67. 67.

    Logan 2016.

  68. 68.

    Cialdini 2007.

  69. 69.

    Cialdini 2007, p. 17; Hogh-Olesen 2013, p. 213; Wells 2015, pp. 159–160.

  70. 70.

    Paul 2009, p. 128; Haslam et al. 2010, p. 50; Adelman and Chapman 2011, p. 16. Kamolnick 2012, p. 14.

  71. 71.

    Ribetti 2009, pp. 166–168; Villanueva O’Driscoll et al. 2013, pp. 117–140; Marsden 2015, pp. 204–205; McColl 2016.

  72. 72.

    Dandurand 2015, pp. 23–37; Goerzig and Al-Hashimi 2015, p. 16; Bjorgo 2006, p. 14.

  73. 73.

    Bell 2013; Boudreau 2015.

  74. 74.

    Cialdini 2007, p. 238; Wells 2015, pp. 162–163.

  75. 75.

    See for example Jakobsen 1998; Cialdini 2007; Wells 2015.

  76. 76.

    Dearden 2016; O’Neill 2016.

  77. 77.

    Bjorgo et al. 2009, pp. 144–146.

  78. 78.

    Jacobson 2010, pp. 15–16; Perloff 2010, pp. 238–239; Gill et al. 2015, p. 252.

  79. 79.

    Shapiro 2013, p. 201.

  80. 80.

    Franzese 2013, p. 286.

  81. 81.

    Al Jazeera 2015.

  82. 82.

    For an overview, see Baumeister et al. 2013, p. 261.

  83. 83.

    Evans and O’Doherty 2014.

  84. 84.

    Varnum et al. 2010; Baumeister et al. 2013, p. 266.

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    Christina van Kuijck

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van Kuijck, C. (2017). Delegitimising the Adversary: Understanding Actor and Audience Analysis as a Tool to Influence and Persuade. In: Ducheine, P., Osinga, F. (eds) Netherlands Annual Review of Military Studies 2017. NL ARMS. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-189-0_11

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