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Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2013 pp 111–138Cite as

Warming to Crisis: The Climate Change Law of Unintended Opportunity

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Part of the book series: Netherlands Yearbook of International Law ((NYIL,volume 44))

Abstract

Global warming is perhaps the ultimate crisis for humanity. But is it a crisis for international law? How has crisis framing and rhetoric influenced the development of international climate change law? Elements of a ‘crisis model’ can be identified in international responses to climate change, but they have transcended it and are evolving in much more complex and textured ways. On the one hand, the continuous pressure for urgent and exceptional action at the multilateral level has led to acrimony between states, indifference and denial among important constituencies, and ultimately to weak arrangements within conventional intergovernmental models. This has produced an impression of constant failure, which in itself poses a challenge to the normative capacity of traditional international law-making. On the other hand, crisis framing has been a catalyst for developments in international law in unintended ways. It has legitimated ‘bottom-up’ approaches and sub-global and unilateral action, as well as localized legal responses. It has led to sophisticated yet plausible reconciliations between climate concerns and international trade. It has promoted reconsiderations of hard policy choices, such as between mitigation and adaptation. International law’s climate change agenda has broadened, not narrowed, and it has shown a considerable capacity to innovate and develop, presenting new opportunities for international law’s functions and modalities.

Along with danger, crisis is represented by opportunity. 1J.F. Kennedy, Convocation of United Negro College Fund, Indianapolis, Indiana (12 April 1959), draft 2, http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/To6xnVCeNUSecmWECy7Fpw.aspx. Accessed 6 May 2013. Similar language was used by Al Gore with respect to climate change at his Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech. A. Gore, Nobel Lecture, Oslo City Hall (10 December 2007), http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2007/gore-lecture_en.html. Accessed 6 May 2013.

Sylvan M. Cohen Chair in Law, Faculty of Law and Department of International Relations, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The author thanks Mariclaire Petty for excellent research assistance; and Rachelle Adam, Shai Dothan, Hari Osofsky and four anonymous referees for helpful comments.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Charlesworth 2002. See in more detail Sect. 6.2.1 infra.

  2. 2.

    Charlesworth 2002, at 382.

  3. 3.

    Hay 1995.

  4. 4.

    Koskenniemi 2005.

  5. 5.

    See Klabbers 2005, at 41. ‘The international lawyer grows up – academically, that is – with a serious inferiority complex: international law is often said to be neither law (and thus inferior to domestic law) nor influential (and thus inferior to the policy sciences).’

  6. 6.

    Piper 1975.

  7. 7.

    The analogy here drawn in the broadest of senses, given the significant differences between the law and institutions involved. For a comparison between the League of Nations and the United Nations involvement in crises see Grigorescu 2005.

  8. 8.

    Kennedy 2000, at 407.

  9. 9.

    Debray 1973, at 99.

  10. 10.

    However, the process may have its defining moments or ‘tipping points’, such as CO2 concentrations crossing 400 parts per million (ppm), as depicted by Ralph Keeling, a leading researcher in the field. ‘I think it will be a point that some people will look back on and say, “Oh I remember when it crossed 400 back in the day”. S. Murphy 2013, Greenhouse Gas Levels Approach ‘Worrisome’ Milestone, KPBS, 24 April 2013, http://www.kpbs.org/news/2013/apr/24/greenhouse-gas-levels-near-worrisome-milestone/. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  11. 11.

    See Weart 2008.

  12. 12.

    See, e.g., data and testimonials in Global Humanitarian Forum Human Impact Report, Climate Change: The Anatomy of a Silent Crisis, 2009, http://www.ghf-ge.org/human-impact-report.pdf. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  13. 13.

    Kahan et al. 2012, at 732–735.

  14. 14.

    Newell and Paterson 1998.

  15. 15.

    Tate 2001. See more in depth Ruhl 2012.

  16. 16.

    See, generally, Hey 2009. Even a principle such as ‘Common but Differentiated Responsibilities’ (CDR) in addressing environmental degradation, as well as several other important principles of international environmental law, found there first major universal expression in the Rio Declaration of 1992. Compare with a pre-Rio legal analysis by Edith Brown Weiss (Weiss 1989), which resorts to very abstract discussion of intergenerational fairness and prescriptive flexibility.

  17. 17.

    Hey 2009, at 4.

  18. 18.

    UNGA Res. 43/53, 6 December 1988.

  19. 19.

    Bodansky 2012, at 655.

  20. 20.

    See Schenck 2008 (emphasis in original).

  21. 21.

    See, generally, Paterson 1996, at Ch. 6.

  22. 22.

    Posner and Sykes 2013, at 232.

  23. 23.

    Boin 2004, at 167. See also Hewitt 1983.

  24. 24.

    Badrinarayan 2011, at 456.

  25. 25.

    Gramsci 1992, at Vol. II, Notebook 3, §34, at 32–33. Gramsci was writing on the historical ‘crisis of authority’.

  26. 26.

    Hay 1995, at 63.

  27. 27.

    For an excellent historiography of climate knowledge, see Edwards 2010.

  28. 28.

    Manabe and Wetherald 1975.

  29. 29.

    For more detailed histories of climate change policy, see Schenk 2008, at 322–327; Gupta 2010.

  30. 30.

    National Academy of Sciences 1979.

  31. 31.

    World Meteorological Organization, International Collaborations and Partnerships on Climate Change, http://www.wmo.int/pages/themes/climate/international_background.php. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  32. 32.

    World Conference on The Changing Atmosphere: Implications for Global Security, Conference Statement, 1988, http://www.cmos.ca/ChangingAtmosphere1988e.pdf. Accessed 6 May 2013 (hereinafter 1988 Conference Statement).

  33. 33.

    Moomaw 2013, at 106.

  34. 34.

    1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1771 UNTS 107.

  35. 35.

    1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 37 ILM 22.

  36. 36.

    See Schenk 2008, at 325–26.

  37. 37.

    UNFCCC COP-16, Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action under the Convention, Dec.1/CP.16, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1, 10 December 2010.

  38. 38.

    UNFCCC COP-17, Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, Dec.1/CP.17, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1, 11 December 2011.

  39. 39.

    V. Jeremić, Address by President of the United Nations General Assembly to the Opening Ceremony of the High-Level Segment of COP18/CMP8/, 4 December 2012, http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/doha_nov_2012/statements/application/pdf/04122012_cop18_hls_president_un_general_assembly.pdf. Accessed 6 May 2013 (hereinafter 2012 Jeremić Statement).

  40. 40.

    1988 Conference Statement.

  41. 41.

    See 2012 Jeremić Statement.

  42. 42.

    U.S. Global Change Research Program 2009.

  43. 43.

    H. Kim, Keynote Speech by Prime Minister, Republic of Korea for the Seoul Pre-COP 18, 22 October 2012. http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/doha_nov_2012/application/pdf/pre_cop_opening_remarks_prime-minister_rep_of_korea.pdf. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  44. 44.

    C. Hedegaard, Statement at Opening Ceremony of the High-Level Segment of COP18/CMP8, 4 December 2012. http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/hedegaard/headlines/news/2012-12-04_01_en.htm. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  45. 45.

    Maas et al. 2011, at 1.

  46. 46.

    See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007. This IPCC report is considered to be a defining moment in the achievement of scientific consensus regarding global warming and its anthropogenic causes.

  47. 47.

    Richardson et al. 2009.

  48. 48.

    International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Rio + 20 Policy Brief #5—Planet Under Pressure, 26–29 March 2012, http://www.planetunderpressure2012.net/pdf/policy_interconissues.pdf. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  49. 49.

    H. Stewart and L. Elliott, Nicholas Stern: ‘I got it wrong on climate change—it’s far, far worse’, Guardian, 26 January 2013, http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/jan/27/nicholas-stern-climate-change-davos. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  50. 50.

    Oxfam, Leading NGOs Make Emergency Appeal as Doha Talks are on the Brink of Disaster, 7 December 2012, http://www.oxfam.org/en/grow/pressroom/pressrelease/2012-12-07/leading-ngos-make-emergency-appeal-doha-talks-are-brink-disaster. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  51. 51.

    An Inconvenient Truth: A Global Warming (2006) Paramount Pictures.

  52. 52.

    Nobelprize.org, The Nobel Peace Prize for 2007, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2007/press.html. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  53. 53.

    See Olmsted 2008, at 133–134.

  54. 54.

    Wood 2007.

  55. 55.

    See Badrinarayan 2011, at 22.

  56. 56.

    See Osofsky 2011. Generally, this observation correlates with what I identify as opportunities for international law; it is, in fact, the birth of new mode of international law that negate the idea of crisis. See Sect. 6.6.

  57. 57.

    See Charlesworth 2002, at 382.

  58. 58.

    Ibid., at 382.

  59. 59.

    Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007, at 5 and 10, respectively.

  60. 60.

    See Lefsrud and Meyer 2012. This recent study is based on survey responses of 1077 professional engineers and geoscientists associated with the petroleum industry in Alberta. Though virtually all agreed that climate is changing, views on the causes of the change where highly diverse. See also Whitmarsh 2011. This study finds that sceptical public attitudes are correlated with political and environmental values, rather than by education or knowledge.

  61. 61.

    See S. Goldenberg, Secret Funding Helped Build Vast Network of Climate Denial Thinktanks, Guardian, 14 February 2013, http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/feb/14/funding-climate-change-denial-thinktanks-network. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  62. 62.

    Weiss 1989, at 345–351.

  63. 63.

    See Olmsted 2008, at 55.

  64. 64.

    See Charlesworth 2002, at 382.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., at 384.

  66. 66.

    See Sect. 6.1.

  67. 67.

    See, e.g., Bodansky 2010.

  68. 68.

    For an account of the historical development of global biodiversity from colonial times until the present, see Adam (forthcoming, 2014).

  69. 69.

    See Hodas 2008.

  70. 70.

    See Charlesworth 2002, at 384.

  71. 71.

    See Leiserowitz 2005.

  72. 72.

    See Kvaløy et al. 2012.

  73. 73.

    See G. Ereaut and N. Segnit, Warm Words: How are We Telling the Climate Change Story and Can We Tell it Better? August 2006, at 7, http://www.ippr.org/images/media/files/publication/2011/05/warm_words_1529.pdf. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  74. 74.

    See O’Neill and Cole 2009. See also Moser and Dilling 2010.

  75. 75.

    Mattoo and Subramanian sum up these reasons, at the international level, quite nicely. ‘International negotiations on climate change have been dogged by mutual recriminations between rich and poor countries, constricted by zero-sum arithmetic of a shrinking global carbon budget, and overtaken by shifts in economic and hence bargaining power between industrialized and developing countries.’ Mattoo and Subramanian 2013, at 2.

  76. 76.

    Charlesworth 2002, at 382.

  77. 77.

    Ibid., at 386.

  78. 78.

    Pauwelyn 2012.

  79. 79.

    See Low et al. 2011.

  80. 80.

    James 2009.

  81. 81.

    See Voigt 2008.

  82. 82.

    Van Asselt et al. 2008.

  83. 83.

    Section 6.1.

  84. 84.

    See, e.g., Genasci 2008; Horn and Mavroidis 2011 (the latter contribution suggests BTAs can be WTO-consistent, but might not be effective).

  85. 85.

    Brewer 2002, at 1–2. See also Messerlin 2010.

  86. 86.

    International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development. Climate Change, Energy Access, and Security, http://ictsd.org/publications/latest-pubs/dg2013/climate-change-energy-access-and-security/. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  87. 87.

    World Trade Organization, DS412, DS426: Canada—Certain Measures Affecting the Renewable Energy Generation Sector, 6 May 2013, http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news13_e/412_426abr_e.htm. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  88. 88.

    International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, Fostering Low Carbon Growth: The Case for a Sustainable Energy Trade Agreement, November 2011, http://ictsd.org/i/publications/117557/?view=document. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  89. 89.

    World Trade Organization, Workshop on the Role of Intergovernmental Agreements in Energy Policy, 29 April 2013, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/envir_e/wksp_envir_apr13_e/wksp_envir_apr13_e.htm. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  90. 90.

    Ruhl 2010, at 367–369. See also Schipper and Burton 2009.

  91. 91.

    International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, Climate Change, Energy Access, and Security, 2012, at 7, http://ictsd.org/publications/latest-pubs/dg2013/climate-change-energy-access-and-security/. Accessed 10 May 2013.

  92. 92.

    Farber 2013a.

  93. 93.

    Puthucherill 2012.

  94. 94.

    Charlesworth 2002, at 387–388.

  95. 95.

    Ibid., at 388–391.

  96. 96.

    Section 6.4.1.

  97. 97.

    See Global Humanitarian Forum Human Impact Report, Climate Change: The Anatomy of a Silent Crisis, 2009, http://www.ghf-ge.org/human-impact-report.pdf. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  98. 98.

    See Skutsch 2002. Gender dimensions of climate change may stem, inter alia, from the centrality of women as primary providers, and users of energy in developing country households and elsewhere, implicating both a relative responsibility for emissions and a vulnerability to change.

  99. 99.

    See Terry 2009.

  100. 100.

    1988 Conference Statement.

  101. 101.

    Ahmed 2011.

  102. 102.

    A. Doyle, Climate Change Called Security Issue like Cold War, Reuters, 21 August 2007, http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/08/21/us-climate-security-idUSL213921720070821. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  103. 103.

    Katz 2011.

  104. 104.

    Hartmann 2010.

  105. 105.

    Charlesworth 2002, at 390.

  106. 106.

    1988 Conference Statement.

  107. 107.

    See Bodansky 2011.

  108. 108.

    See also Schenck 2008, at 333. Even nations that did sign on to the Kyoto Protocol and support it have had trouble meeting their obligations.

  109. 109.

    Moomaw 2013, at 111.

  110. 110.

    Ibid., at 112.

  111. 111.

    Schenck 2008, at 328.

  112. 112.

    Ibid., at 346.

  113. 113.

    Ibid., at 337.

  114. 114.

    Vihma and Van Asselt 2012, at 3.

  115. 115.

    Bodansky 1999, at 607.

  116. 116.

    Bodansky 2011.

  117. 117.

    Vihma and Van Asselt 2012, at 8.

  118. 118.

    Bodansky 2000.

  119. 119.

    Climate Change Laws: Beginning at Home, The Economist, 19 January 2013, http://www.economist.com/news/international/21569691-domestic-laws-not-global-treaty-are-way-fight-global-warming-beginning-home. Accessed 6 May 2013.

  120. 120.

    See Osofsky 2009; Farber 2013b.

  121. 121.

    Rabe 2007.

  122. 122.

    Eckersley 2012.

  123. 123.

    Osofsky 2010.

  124. 124.

    Hay 1996.

  125. 125.

    Gramsci 1992.

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  1. Faculty of Law and Department of International Relations, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

    Tomer Broude

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  1. Tomer Broude
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Correspondence to Tomer Broude .

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  1. Legal Affairs Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, The Netherlands

    Mielle K. Bulterman

  2. University of Tilburg Tilburg Law School, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Willem J.M. van Genugten

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Broude, T. (2014). Warming to Crisis: The Climate Change Law of Unintended Opportunity. In: Bulterman, M., van Genugten, W. (eds) Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2013. Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, vol 44. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-011-4_6

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