Abstract
Faith schools in England are associated with particular interpretive traditions within a religion. There are Catholic schools and Anglican Schools, for example. Similarly, what are called the Islamic schools are actually along the lines of madhabs or maslaks such as Deobandi, Barelvi, Ithna ashari Shia schools. Further, there are no inter-faith schools; no schools that are run by different faiths together. The above observations raise a question. How do faith schools teach about the religious other – both about other denominations within their own religious tradition and about the other religious traditions? The question was also raised in the context of a recent Ofsted report on independent faith schools which concluded that “although most schools taught a general understanding of other faiths…many of the schools visited were reluctant to teach about other faiths in great detail” (Ofsted 2009, Independent faith schools, p. 4). This chapter provides the results of exploratory research based on the above question with a focus on Muslim faith schools in England. The findings, based on the interviews of teachers, interfaith educators, classroom observations and the analysis of educational materials, are situated within the context of the wide range of attitudes towards religious diversity found in Muslim societies, past and present. Pedagogical and theological implications of teaching the religious other in faith schools are also examined. The findings show that at least some Muslim faith schools are giving serious attention to this area but their efforts are limited by certain factors such as lack of sound educational materials and limited engagement with philosophical and theological issues around the question of religious diversity.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
The Education (Independent Schools Standards) (England) Regulations 2010.
- 2.
It is estimated that no more than 5–7 % of Muslim children in the UK attend Muslim faith schools. Though it is possible that lack of supply has much to do with it and the number of those wishing to send their children to Muslim faith schools is significantly higher. Still faith schools are an object of debate among Muslims themselves as many are not in favour of separate faith schools.
- 3.
These two goals of faith schools can sometimes be in conflict as well, as discussed in Panjwani (2012).
- 4.
Available at http://www.alfalahschool.org.uk/curriculum.html [accessed on February 10, 2013].
- 5.
Available at http://igs.1mno.co.uk/component/content/article/124-welcome. [accessed on February 10, 2013].
- 6.
Shi’a and Sunni are the two major doctrinal groups among Muslims. Both are internally varied. The Shi’as of different types share the belief that upon his death Prophet Muhammad appointed ‘Ali as his successor. This belief distinguishes them from what came to be known as the Sunni communities who believe that the Prophet left it to Muslims to choose their leader.
- 7.
The formula peace be upon him is often spoken or written by Muslims whenever the Prophets name is mentioned.
- 8.
On occasions the term includes the Sabeans and Zoroastrians as well (Qur’an 22:17).
- 9.
‘Those who believe, and those who are the Jews, and the Christians and the Sabians – any who believe in Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve’ (Qur’an 2:62).
- 10.
‘O you who believe, do not take the Jews and the Christians as allies. They are allies of one another. And whoever is an ally to them among you – then indeed he [one] of them. Allah guides not the wrongdoing people.’ (Qu’ran 5:51).
- 11.
The Qu’ran has a complex attitude towards the sacred books of Christianity and Judiasm. In general, it can be said that the Qu’ran views the then existing books as a mixture of original revelation, distortions and omissions. This is called Tahreef (2:79; 4:46; 5:14).
- 12.
Though the overall stance in the Qu’ran towards Christians is milder and more positive than towards Jews, Waardenburg is probably right to note that ‘…the definitive Qu’ranic judgement of Jews and Christians appears to be eschatologically suspended. It is simply left to God’s final judgement at the end of history’ (Waardenburg 1999b. p9).
- 13.
In Christian context, the title of a book by Hugo Grotius (d. 1645) well captures the attitude: True Religion Explained and Defended against ye Archenemies therof in these Times.
- 14.
Though Islamic mysticism, of Sufism, is today often projected as an antidote to exclusivist and extremist interpretations of Islam, it is important to note that Sufis themselves were of many types, including some who are exclusivists. Many were open to mystical approaches within different religions but had very difficult and polemical interactions with other claimants to truth such as the philosophers, the Traditionalists (Muhaddithun) and the law makers (Fuqaha).
- 15.
The scope of the term changed over time and by the early modern period it included almost all non-Muslims.
- 16.
Dara Shikoh is regarded as a champion of religious plurality seeking coexistence of multiple religious traditions in South Asia. His work Majma al-bahrain (The Commingling of the Two Oceans) is arguably the best example of attempts to develop metaphysical unit among different religious tradition. The ‘two oceans’ here refer to Sufism (Islamic mysticism) and the Vedantic thought in the Hindu tradition.
- 17.
UUnlike in its Qu’ranic and early Muslim historical usage, the term kafir has now acquired a much wider currency, particularly in the Jihadi discourse. Once someone is labelled a Kafir, legal ways can be found to justify her killing.
- 18.
In other schools, teachers were reluctant to talk about intra-Islamic diversity. When asked, the teachers would interpret it to mean ethnic diversity and refer to pupils from different cultures. Given the sensitivities involved, the researcher did not press further.
- 19.
Available at http://www.theoxfordfoundation.com/#!ompep/c1pna [accessed February 12, 2013].
- 20.
The book argues that the labels good and bad Muslims are political and not religious. They have nothing to do with how one reads the Qu’ran or performs rituals. Rather they have to do with the political orientation towards America: good Muslims are westernised, ‘modernized’ and secular while bad Muslims are medieval, fanatic and antiwest. Mamdani makes this claim by presenting a socio-political history of what has come to be known as Islamic terrorism, show how today’s bad Muslims were yesterday’s good Muslims.
- 21.
The ICE project (Islam and Citizenship) was yet another source of resources for some teachers. Available as: http://www.theiceproject.sdsa.net/index.php [accessed on February 13, 2013].
References
Ameli, R. S., Azam, A., & Merali, A. (2005). Secular or Islamic? What schools do British Muslims want for their children? London: The Islamic Human Rights Commission.
Amin, A., & Parkinson, M. (2002). Ethnicity and the multicultural city: Living with diversity. Environment and Planning, 34(6), 959–980.
Aslan, A. (1998). Religious pluralism in Christian and Islamic philosophy : The thought of John Hick and Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Richmond: Curzon.
Atkins, P. (2001, March 1). The Church school – Good or evil: Against. The Independent, 7.
Austin, R. J. T. (1980). Ibn Al Arabi: The bezels of wisdom. New York: Paulist Press.
BHA. (2006). Faith (or Religious) schools – Why not? Retrieved November 22, 2007, from http://www.humanism.org.uk/site/cms/contentViewArticle.asp?article=1268
Breen, D. (2009). Religious diversity, inter-ethnic relations and the Catholic school: Introducing the < i > responsive</i > approach to single faith schooling. British Journal of Religious Education, 31(2), 103–115.
Cush, D. (2003). Should the state fund schools with a religious character? Resource, 25(2), 10–15.
Dahlén, A. (2007). Sirāt al-mustaqīm – One or many? Religious pluralism among Muslim intellectuals in Iran. In I. Abu-Rabi’ (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to contemporary Islamic thought (pp. 425–448). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Davis, A. (2010). Defending religious pluralism for religious education. Ethics and Education, 5(3), 189–202. doi:10.1080/17449642.2010.519138.
Dwyer, C., & Parutis, V. (2012). ‘Faith in the system?’ State-funded faith schools in England and the contested parameters of community cohesion. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 38(2), 267–284. doi:10.1111/j.1475-5661.2012.00518.x.
Esposito, J. (2003). Modernizing Islam and re-Islamization in global perspective. In J. Esposito & F. Burgat (Eds.), Modernizing Islam: Religion in the public sphere in Europe and the Middle East (pp. 1–13). London: Hurst & Company.
Gutmann, A. (1996). Challenges of multiculturalism in democratic education. In R. K. Fullwider (Ed.), Public education in a multicultural society: Policy, theory, critique (pp. 156–179). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Halstead, J. M. (1995). Voluntary apartheid? Problems of education for religious and other minorities in democratic societies. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 29(2), 257–272.
Heck, P. L. (2009). Common ground: Islam, Christianity, and religious pluralism. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Hemming, P. J. (2011). Meaningful encounters? Religion and social cohesion in the English primary school. Social & Cultural Geography, 12(1), 63–81. doi:10.1080/14649360903514384.
Hewitt, I. (1996). The case for Muslim schools. In G. Sarwar (Ed.), Issues in Islamic education. London: The Muslim Educational Trust.
Hick, J. (1985). Problems of religious pluralism. London: Macmillan.
Hick, J. (1989). An interpretation of religion: Human responses to the transcendent. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Hochschild, A. R. (1979). Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure. American Journal of Sociology, 85(3), 551–575. doi:10.2307/2778583.
Huxley, A. (1945). The perennial philosophy (1st ed.). New York: Harper & Brothers.
Ipgrave, J. (1999). Issues in the delivery of religious education to Muslim pupils: Perspectives from the classroom. British Journal of Religious Education, 21(3), 146–157.
Jackson, R. (2004). Rethinking religious education and plurality: Issues in diversity and pedagogy. London/New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Khalil, M. H. (2012). Islam and the fate of others: The salvation question. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Khan-Cheema, A. (1984). Islamic education and the maintained school system. Muslim Education Quarterly, 2(1), 5–15.
Liederman, L. M. (2000). Pluralism in education: The display of Islamic affiliation in French and British schools. Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 11(1), 105–117.
Mamdani, M. (2004). Good Muslim, bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the roots of terror (1st ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.
Marples, R. (2006). Against faith schools. In H. Johnson (Ed.), Reflection on faith schools. London: Routledge.
Nelson, M. J. (2009). Dealing with difference: Religious education and the challenge of democracy in Pakistan’. Modern Asian Studies, 43(03), 591–618. doi:10.1017/S0026749X07003423.
Norton, A. (2013). On the Muslim question. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Ofsted. (2009). Independent faith schools. London: Ofsted.
Panjwani, F. (2005). Agreed syllabus and un-agreed values: Religious education and missed opportunities for fostering social cohesion. British Journal of Educational Studies, 53(3), 375–393.
Panjwani, F. (2012). Why did you not tell me about this? Religion as a challenge to faith schools. In H. Alexander & A. Agbaria (Eds.), Commitment, character, and citizenship: Religious education in liberal democracy. New York: Routledge.
Parker-Jenkins, M., Hartas, D., & Irving, B. (2005). In good faith: Schools, religion and public funding. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Ramadan, T. (2010). The quest for meaning: Developing a philosophy of pluralism. London: Allen Lane.
Rossi, J. A. (2003). Teaching about international conflict and peacemaking at the grassroots level. The Social Studies, 94(4), 149–157. doi:10.1080/00377990309600198.
Runnymede, T. (2008). Right to divide? Faith schools and community cohesion. London: The Runnymede Trust.
Sarwar, G. (1994). British Muslims and schools. London: The Muslim Education Trust.
Waardenburg, J. (1999a). The Medieval period: 650–1500. In J. Waardenburg (Ed.), Muslim perceptions of other religions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Waardenburg, J. (1999b). The early period. In J. Waardenburg (Ed.), Muslim perception of other religions: A historical survey (pp. 3–17). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zine, J. (2007). Safe havens or religious ‘ghettos’? Narrartives of Islamic schooling in Canada. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 10(1), 71–92.
Zine, J. (2008). Canadian Islamic schools: Unravelling the politics of faith, gender, knowledge, and identity. Toronto/London: University of Toronto Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Panjwani, F. (2014). Faith-Schools and the Religious Other: The Case of Muslim Schools. In: Chapman, J., McNamara, S., Reiss, M., Waghid, Y. (eds) International Handbook of Learning, Teaching and Leading in Faith-Based Schools. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8972-1_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8972-1_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-017-8971-4
Online ISBN: 978-94-017-8972-1
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawEducation (R0)