Abstract
Situated between the Himalaya and the wastes of Central Asia, high above the clouds, mysterious, awe-inspiring, forbidding, the unworldly world of Tibet has a fascination hard to resist. Few have, however, dared to go beyond the precipitous barrier of the Himalaya that guards its seclusion, and fewer still have been permitted to do so. Tibet always was, and remains, a poor country made up of large, barren, and tree-less plateaus and secluded valleys. Covering a vast area of about 500,000 square miles, it is bounded on the north by the Chinese Province of Sinkiang; on the south by Nepal, Bhutan, and Sikkim, along with 800 miles of mountainous Indian territory; on the west by the Ladakh area of Kashmir; and on the east by China. In spite of its obvious strategic importance, its recent occupation by Communist China has more or less been ignored. The colonization of free Tibet in the present age of decolonization, and the woes and cries of the three million freedom-loving Tibetans, have failed to elicit any conrete action on the part of the Free World. Under the very nose of the great champions of freedom, a free country has lost its identity, and without so much as a vigorous protest from the ever-vociferous advocates of human rights, its people have had to suffer the most inhuman treatment.
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References
All dates in this article are A.D.
H. E. Richardson, Tibet and Its History (London, 1962), pp. 28 ff; Tsepon, W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History (New Haven, Conn., 1967), pp. 23 ff.; and Frank Moraes, The Revolt in Tibet (New York, N. Y, 1960), pp. 32–36.
See M. E. Willoughby, “The Relation of Tibet to China”, Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society (London), vol 11 (1924), p. 189; Shakabpa, n. 2, pp. 64 ff.; Ram Gopal, India-China-Tibet Triangle (Lucknow, 1964), pp. 2 ff.; and Moraes, n. 2, p. 37.
W. W. Rockhill, The Dalai Lamas of Lhasa and Their Relations with the Manchu Emperors of China, 1644–1908 (Leyden, 1910), p. 3; Shakabpa, n. 2, pp. 113 ff.; and Ram Gopal, n. 3, p. 4.
Amaury de Riencourt, “Tibetan History”, in Raja Hutheesing, ed., Tibet Fights for Freedom: The Story of the March 1959 Uprising as Recorded in Documents, Despatches, Eye-Witness Accounts and World-wide Reactions (Bombay, 1960), p. 4.
See C. V. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements, and Sanads Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries (Calcutta, 1929), edn., 5, vol. 14, pp. 15 and 49–50; and Rain Gopal, n. 3, p. 9.
Ram Gopal, n. 3, pu 9.
See International Commission of Jurists, The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law (Geneva, 1959), p. 77.
Ibid.
The British classified the Sino-Tibetan relations as involving Chinese “sovereignty” over Tibet. See Alfred P. Rubin, “The Position ef Tibet in International Law”,China Quarterly (London), July-September 1968, p. 112.
Richardson, n. 2, p. 77.
Aitchison, n. 6, p. 17.
Ibid.
Quoted in Sir Charles Bell, Portrait of the Dalai Lama (London, 1946), p. 61.
Riencourt, n. 5, p. 4.
See Ram Gopal, n. 3, pp. 10–11; and Richardson, n. 2, p. 4.
Bell, n. 14, p. 62; and Richardson, n. 2, p. 4.
See Perceval Landon,Opening of Tibet (New York, N.Y., 1905), p. 21.
See Sir Eric Teichman,Affairs of China (London, 1938), p. 222.
See quoted in Ram Gopal, n. 3, p. 12.
Sir Francis Younghusband, India and Tibet (London, 1910), pp. 421–2; and Richardson, n. 2, p. 93.
Ti-Chiang Chen, The International Law of Recognition: With Special Reference to Practice in Great Britain and the United States, L. C. Green, ed. (London, 1951), p. 192.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 196.
Sir Hersch Lauterpacht,Recognition irrTnternational Law (Cambridge, 1947), pp. 375 ff. and pp. 408–6.
International Commission of Jurists, Tibet and the Chinese People’s Republic: Final Report of the International Commission of Jurists by Its Legal Inquiry Committee on Tibet (Delhi, 1966), pp. 145–6. For the contrary view, see Rubin, n. 10, p. 114.
See Ram Gopal, n. 3, p. 14.
Sir Charles Bell, Tibet: Past and Present (Oxford, 1924), p. 88.
It is interesting to note that the Russians also agreed in this Agreement not to deal with Afghanistan except through Britain.
For the full text, see Bell, n. 28, pp. 289 ff.
Ibid., p. 93. See alsoThe Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law n. 8, p. 83; and Richardson, n. 2, p. 96.
Bell, n. 14, p. 63.
Quoted, ibid., p. 77.
See Willoughby, n. 3, p. 194.
Bell, n. 14, p. 77.
Willoughby, n. 3, p. 195.
Bell, n. 14, p. 97.
Idem, n. 28, p. 112.
Idem, n. 14, p. 98.
Idem, n. 28, p. 113; and Richardson, n. 2, p. 101.
Bell, n. 28, p. 114.
Aitchison n. 6, p. 20; and Willoughby, n. 3, p. 194.
Bell, n. 14, p. 135; and Richardson, n. 2, p. 105. But cf. Rubin, n. 10, p. 122; and idem, “A Matter of Fact”, American Journal of International Law (Washington, D. C.), vol. 59 (1965), pp. 586 ff.
Bell, n. 28, p. 213.
Idem, n. 14, p. 391. Dalai Lama XIII died in December 1933.
Hugh E. Richardson, Red Star over Tibet (Delhi, 1959), p. 8.
Riencourt, n. 5, p. 5.
See quoted in Hutheesing, n. 5, p. 15.
See Memorandum of 5 August 1943, Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Mayhew, to the Chinese Government. Quoted in Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law (Washington, D.C., 1963), vol. 1, p. 464. See also Willoughby, n. 3, p. 198.
John Bassett Moore,A Digest of International Law (Washington, D. C., 1906), vol. 1, p. 27. See also Charles Henry Alexandrowicz-Alexander, “The Legal Position of Tibet”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 48 (1954), pp. 265 ff; and C. C. Hyde, International Law (Boston, Mass., 1957), edn. 2, vol. 1, pp. 48 ff.
Alexandrowicz-Alexander, n. 50, p. 265.
Ibid., pp. 265–6.
Ibid., p. 266.
See W. E. Hall,International Law (Oxford, 1917), p. 29; Hyde, n. 50, pp. 48 ff; and L. Oppenheim, International Law, Hersch Lauterpacht, ed. (London, 1955), edn. 8, vol. 1, pp. 190–1.
For instances of the participation by vassal states in international relations before their Independence, see Oppenheim, ibid.
Bell, n. 28, p. 208.
Alexandrowicz-Alexander, n. 50, p. 267.
Ibid., p. 268.
Richardson, n. 46, p. 8. Also idem, n. 2, p. 103. vol. 10, no. 4.
See Bell, n. 14, p. 356; and David Howarth, ed., My Land and My People: The Autobiography of His Holiness the Dalai Lama (Bombay, 1962), pp. 65–66.
Bell, n. 14.
Ibid.
See Alexandrowicz-Alexander, n. 50, p. 268.
See Bell, n. 14, pp. 352–3.
For the contrary view, see Tieh-Tseng Li, “The Position of Tibet”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 50 (1965), p. 395.
Bell, n. 14, p. 353.
See the text of the cablegram sent by the Tibetan Kashag to the United Nations on 11 November 1950 in Tibet in the United Nations 1950–1961 (Issued by the Bureau of His Holiness the Dalai Lama) (New Delhi, 1965), p. 2.
Alexandrowicz-Alexander, n. 50, p. 270.
The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8.
Ti eh-Tseng Li, n. 65, p. 397.
Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, pp. 139 and 318; and Bell, n. 28, p. 149.
Bell, n. 28, p. 150; and Richardson, n. 2, pp. 107 ff.
See Bell, n. 28, pp. 154–5.
Ibid., p. J 57.
See quoted in Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 140.
It is interesting to note that seven years after the Simla Conference, the Dalai Lama wanted to know from the British representative in Tibet the real reason for the proposed division of his country into two parts. See Bell, n. 14, p. 206.
Quoted in Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 141.
Alexandrowicz-Alexander, n. 50, p. 276; $nd Richardson, n. 2, pp. 114–16.
Tibet and the Chinese People s Republic, n. 26, pp. 140–1. For an opposite view challenging the validity of the Simla Convention, see Tieh-Tseng Li, n. 65, pp. 400–1.
For the contrary view, see Rubin, n. 10, p. 127; and idem, n. 43, pp. 587–8.
See Bell,’n. 14, p. 206.
Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 142.
See Rubin, n. 10, p. 130.
See Whiteman, n. 49, p. 465.
Rubin, n. 10, p. 120.
See Bell, n. 28, Appendix 12, p. 298.
Ibid., Appendix 14, p. 305.
See Alexandrowicz-Alexander, n. 50, p. 272.
Ibid. See also idem, “Comment on the ‘Legal’ Position of Tibet”, Indian Year Book of International Affairs (Madras), 1956, pp. 172 ff.
For a text of the Treaty, see Bell, n. 28, Appendix 13, p. 304. Doubts have been expressed not only about the authority of the one who negotiated on behalf of Tibet, Agvan Dorjiev, who was a Russian Buryat, to enter into such a treaty but also about the existence of the Treaty itself. Ibid., pp. 151 and 228–30; and Rubin, n. 10, p. 123. However, in 1960 the present Dalai Lama asserted that this Treaty was entered into under the authority of his predecessor. See Howarth, n. 60, p. 240.
Howarth, ibid., p. 240; and Rubin, n. 10, p. 130.
Alexandrowicz-Alexander, n. 50, p. 272.
The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 87.
Ibid.
Bell, n. 14, p. 231.
See Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 145.
Ibid.
Alexandrowicz-Alexander, n. 50, p. 273.
Ibid. Also see The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 88.
Rubin, n. 10, p. 131.
Ibid., p. 132.
Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 147.
Rubin, n. 10, p. 133.
See Tieh-Tseng Li, Tibet: Today and Yesterday (New York, N. Y., 1960), pp. 178–84; idem, n. 65, p. 397; and Concerning the Question of Tibet (Peking, 1959), p. 195.
Bell, n. 14, pp. 399–400; Sir Basil John Gould, Jewel in the Lotus: Recollections of an Indian Political Obseiover (London, 1957), p. 234; Richardson, quoted in Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 146; Howarth, n. 60, pp. 33 ff.; and Richardson, n. 2, p. 154.
US Department of State, Foreign Relation of the United States: Diplomatic Papers: 1942: China (Washington, D. C., 1956), p. 626.
Richardson, n. 2, p. 159.
China, 1942, n. 106, p. 145. Quoted in The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 89.
US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers: 1943: China (Washington, D.C., 1957), p. 622. Emphasis added.
Ibid., pp. 626–7, 634, and 642.
Ibid., p. 636. Emphasis added.
Ibid., p. 635.
Ibid., pp. 629 and 630.
Ibid., p. 630; and The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, pp. 90–91.
See Richardson, n. 2, p. 164.
See China, 1943, n. 109, pp. 629–30.
Richardson, n. 2, p. 161.
Ibid., pp. 161–2; and China, 1943, n. 109, pp. 632 ff.
Richardson,.n. 2, p. 162; and Rubin, n. 10, p. 134.
Tieh-Tseng Li, n. 65, pp. 397–8.
SeeThe International Position of Tibet (New Delhi, 1959), p. 29; and D. K. Sen, “China, Tibet and India”, India Quarterly (New Delhi), vol. 7 (1951), p. 113.
See The Question o f Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 93; Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 148; and Rubin, n. 10, p. 135.
Purshottam Trikamdas in Tibet in the United Nations, 1950–1961, n. 67, p. viii; Richardson, n. 2, p. 168; ?fid Rubin, n. 10, p. 135 (n.).
See Richardson, n. 2, p. 177.
See The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 93; Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 157; and Peter Calvocoressi, Survey of International Affairs 1949–50 (London, 1953), p. 369.
Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 160.
See Calvocoressi, n. 125, pp. 369–70.
Cf. Ti-Chiang Chen, n. 22, p. 33; and Lauterpacht, n. 25, pp. 38 ff.
Ti-Chiang Chen, n. 22, pp. 30 ff.
Seé L. Oppenheim,International Law (London, 1937), edn. 5, vol. 1, p. 120; idem, n. 54, pp. 125 ff; Hans J. Kelsen, “Recognition in International Law: Theoretical Observation”, American Journal of international Law, vol. 35 (1941), p. 605.
Ti-Chiang Chen, n. 22, pp. 30 ff.
Lauterpacht, n. 25, p. 6.
W. E. Hall, A Treatise on International Law, A.P. Higgins, ed. (London, 1924), p. 127.
John Fischer Williams, “Some Thoughts on Recognition in International Law”, Harvard Law Review (Cambridge, Mas$.), vol. 47 (1933–34), pp. 776 ff.; Charles de Visscher, Theory and Reality in Public International Law, P. E. Corbett, trans. (Princeton, N. J., 1957), pp. 228 ff.; and Ti-Chiang Chen, n. 22, pp. 52 and 62.
Ti-Chiang Chen, n. 22, pp. 53–54, 77–78, and 133 ff.
See Rubin, n. 10, pp. 127–8.
See China 1942, n. 108, p. 145; and China, 1943, n. 109, p. 636.
Statement by the Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in an oral answer to a question in Parliament on 6 November 1950. Quoted in Rubin, n. 10. p. 137.
See Shakabpa, n. 2, p. 301. According to Tieh-Tseng Li, owing to the absence of political consciousness among the Tibetans to form an independent and sovereign state, “the utmost that scholars can do is to classify Tibet as among the entities of doubtful or unusual legal status”. Tieh-Tseng Li, n. 65, p. 403. He thus admits that Tibet was not a part of China. But it was not a no-man’s land either. It was an independent nation. See also Lauterpacht classfying Tibet as a half-sovereign state normally under the protection or suzerainty of China. Oppenheim, n. 54, p. 258.
On 2 September 1949, the Chinese Communists made a statement to that effect. See Calvocoressi, n. 125, p. 368.
See Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic, n. 26, p. 160.
Ibid.
Ibid., pp. 160–1; Calvocoressi, n. 125, p. 370; and The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law. n. 8, p. 93.
The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 94.
See Calvocoressi, n. 125, p. 371.
See quoted in Ram Gopal, n. 3, pp. 32–33; and Richardson, n. 2, p. 184.
See Richardson, n. 2, p. 184.
See Tibet and the Chinese People s Republic, n. 26, p. 161.
See Tibet in the United Nations, 1950–1961, n. 67, pp. 1 ff. Emphasis added.
See Hans Kelsen, The Law of the United Nations (New York, N.Y., 1950), pp. 106 ff.; and L. M. Goodrich and Edvard Hambro, Charter of the United Nations (London, 1949), pp. 108 ff.
See Ti-Chiang Chen, n. 22, p. 33; and H. W. Byiggs, The Law of Nations: Cases, Documents and Notes (New York, N.Y., 1952), pp. 114–15.
Tibet in the United Nations, 1950–1961, n. 67, p. 5.
Ibid., p. 10.
Ibid., p. 11.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 12.
Ibid., p. 14.
Ibid., pp. 15–16.
See George Ginsburgs, “Peking-Lhasa-New Delhi”, Political Science Quarterly (New York, N.Y.), vol. 75 (1960), p. 339.
See the text of the Agreement in The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law n. 8, pp. 139 ff.
Howarth, n. 60, p. 82.
Statement by the Dalai Lama on 29 June 1959. For the text, see The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 196. See also Howarth, n. 60, p. 80; and Shakabpa, n. 2, p. 304.
Under traditional doctrine prior to the Covenant of the League of Nations, when unrestricted right of war was permitted, the validity of a treaty was not affected by the fact that it had been brought about by the threat or use of force. See “Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Eighteenth Session”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 61 (1967), p. 407. Cf. Julius Stone, “The International Law Commission and Imposed Treaties of Peace”, Virginia Journal of International Law (Charlottesville, Va), vol. 8 (1968), pp. 356 ff.
“Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Eighteenth Session”, n. 163. See also The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, pp. 96–97.
The US Government declared on 29 April 1953 that it “neither recognizes nor condones the so-called ‘agreement’ of May 1951, under which the Chinese Communists deprived the Tibetan people of the de facto political autonomy which they long enjoyed”. See Whiteman, n. 49, p. 464.
Bell, n. 28, p. 190; and Rubin, n. 10., p. 144.
See Teichman n. 19, p. 223.
Bell, n. 28, p. 246.
Ibid., p. 191; and Bell, n. 14, p. 342.
Quoted in Ram Gopal, n. 3, p. 53.
For the text of this Agreement and the Notes exchanged on the same day, see Richardsoh, n. 2, pp. 278 ff. This Agreement expired on 2 July 1962. Because of the strain that developed in Sino-Indian relations, it was not renewed. Following the expiry of the Agreement the Indian trade agencies in Tibet and the Chinese trade agencies in India were closed. See Shakabpa, n. 2, p. 309.
Moraes, n. 2, p. 125.
See quoted in Ram Gopal, n. 3, p. 54. Emphasis added.
Moraes, n. 2, p. 118.
See also for such a view, K. M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance (London, 1953), pp. 161–2.
See Moraes, n. 2, pp. 127–8.
See generally Richardson, n. 2, pp. 199 ff. and 206 ff; and Shakabpa, n. 2, pp. 316 ff.
See Tibet and the Chinese People’s Republic, n. 26, pp. 15
See Shakabpa, n. 2, pp. 319–20.
See The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 202.
See Green Haywood Hackworth, Digest of International Law (Washington, D.C., 1932–34), vol. 5, p. 346.
The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 99.
Tibet and the Chinese Peoples Republic n. 26, p. 165.
The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law, n. 8, p. 99.
Ibid., p. 202.
Statement by a spokesman of the Indian Ministry of External Affairs on 30 June 1959. Quoted in Ram Gopal, n. 3, p. 57.
Statement by the Dalai Lama on 30 August 1959. Quoted, ibid., p. 57.
Statement by Nehru in the Lok Sabha on 4 September 1959. Quoted ibid., pp. 57–59. See also Howarth, n. 60, p. 206; and Shakabpa, n. 2, p. 321.
See Tibet in the United Nations, 1950–1961, n. 67, pp. 17–19.
See speeches by the delegates of Belgium, Cuba, El Salvador, Ireland, and New Zealand. Ibid., pp. 88 ff.
For the text of the resolution, ibid., p. 230.
See the speech of V.K. Krishna Menon, the Indian representative, ibid., pp. 199 ff.
For the text of the letter, ibid., pp. 233–8.
Ibid., p. 231.
See a short discussion in connexion with the inclusion of the item in the agenda of the fifteenth session, ibid., pp. 238 ff.
Ibid., pp. 253 ff.
For the text of the resolution, ibid., p 311.
Official Records of the General Assembly of the United Nations (GAOR), session 20, plen. mtgs, mtg 1394, 14 December 1965; mtg 1401, 17 December 1965; and mtg 1403, 18 December 1965. Earlier, in a letter to the Secretary-General on 23 September 1965, the Dalai Lama had drawn the attention of the United Nations to the alarming and most distressing news from Tibet. See GAOR, session, 20, Agenda Item 99, Annexes.
GA Resolution 2079 (XX).
India, Lok Sabha, Debates, col. 12009, 14 July 1967.
Bell, n 28, p. 217; and idem, n. 14, p. 352.
See Briggs, n. 151, pp. 66 and 73 ff. Cf. Tieh-Tseng Li’s using the arguments in favour of China after the 1911 Revolution in China and declaration of independence by Tibet. Tieh-Tseng Li, n. 65, p. 397.
For the British, Indian, and American official positions in 1959, see Whiteman, n. 49. pp. 463–8.
Report of the All India Tibet Convention (Calcutta, 1959), p. 12.
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Anand, R.P. (2004). The Status of Tibet in International Law. In: Studies in International Law and History. Developments in International Law. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-5600-6_3
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