Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants pp 61–96Cite as

Somatic Embryo Germination and Desiccation Tolerance in Conifers

  • Chapter

Part of the book series: Forestry Sciences ((FOSC,volume 55))

Abstract

Somatic embryogenesis is an in vitro process that includes the development of embryonal masses into bipolar embryos capable of maturation, germination and acclimatization in an ex vitro environment (Cheliak & Rogers 1990, Adams et al. 1994). Generally, the maturation phase consists of the transfer of embryonal masses onto charcoal medium for one week followed by placement on maturation medium containing abscisic acid (ABA), low sucrose concentrations (3–6%), and possibly indole butyric acid (IBA), for 3 to 5 weeks, and usually followed by a partial desiccation treatment (Tautorus et al. 1991, Attree and Fowke 1993, Misra 1994). The germination phase is initiated by transferring the mature somatic embryos onto medium without plant growth regulators, a low sucrose level and a reduced macronutrient concentration (Hakman & von Arnold 1988, Klimaszewska 1989a, 1989b, Verhagen & Wann 1989, Laine & David 1990, Roberts et al. 1990a,b, Roberts 1991, Harry & Thorpe 1991, Adams et al. 1994, Charest & Klimaszewska 1994, Lelu & Label 1994, Lelu et al.1994a, Lelu et al. 1995, Chee 1996).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adams, G.W., Doiron, M.G., Park, Y.S., Bonga, J.M., and Charest, P.J. 1994. Commercialization potential of somatic embryogenesis in black spruce tree improvement. For Chron 70 (5): 593–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Afele, J.C., and P.K. Saxena, 1995. Somatic embryogenesis in blue spruce (Picea pungens Engelmann). In: S. M. Jain, P. K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 99110. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attree, S.M., Budimir, S., and Fowke, L.C. 1990. Somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration from cultured shoots and cotyledons of seedlings germinated from stored seed of black and white spruce (Picea mariana and Picea glauca). Can J Bot 68: 30–34.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Attree, S.M., Dunstan, D.I., and Fowke, L.C. 1989a. Initiation of embryogenic callus and suspension cultures, and improved embryo regeneration from protoplasts of white spruce (Picea glauca). Can J Bot 67: 1790–1795.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Attree, S.M., Dunstan, D.I., and Fowke, L.C. 1989b. Plantlet regeneration from embryogenic protoplasts of white spruce (Picea glauca). Bio/Technol 7: 1060–1062.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attree, S.M., and Fowke, L.C. 1993. Embryogeny of gymnosperms: advances in synthetic seed technology of conifers. Plant Cell, Tiss Org Cult 35: 1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attree, S.M., Moore, D., Sawhney, V.K., and Fowke, L.C. 1991. Enhanced maturation and desiccation tolerance of white spruce [Picea glauca (Moench) Voss] somatic embryos: Effects of a nonplasmolysising water stress and abscisic acid. Ann Bot 68: 519–525.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attree, S.M., Pomeroy, M.K., and Fowke, L.C. 1992. Manipulation of conditions for the culture of somatic embryos of white spruce for improved triacylglycerol biosynthesis and desiccation tolerance. Planta 187: 395–404.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Attree, S.M., Pomeroy, M.K., and Fowke, L.C. 1994. Production of vigorous, desiccation tolerant white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss) synthetic seeds in a bioreactor. Plant Cell Rep 13: 601–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Attree, S.M., Pomeroy, M.K., and Fowke, L.C. 1995. Development of white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench.) Voss) somatic embryos during culture with abscisic acid and osmoticum, and their tolerance to drying and frozen storage. 1 Exp Bot 46: 433–439.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, J.D., Park, Y.S., and Bonga, J.M. 1997. The effectiveness of various nitrogen sources in white spruce [Picea glauca ( Moench) Voss] somatic embryogenesis. Plant Cell Rep 16: 411–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beardmore, T., and Charest, P.J. 1995. Black spruce somatic embryo germination and desiccation tolerance. I. Effects of abscisic acid, cold, and heat treatments on the germinability of mature black spruce somatic embryos. Can J For Res 25: 1763–1772.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becwar, M.R., Noland, T.L., and Wyckoff, J.L. 1989. Maturation, germination, and conversion of Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) somatic embryos to plants. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol (25)6: 575–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becwar, M.R., and G.S. Pullman, 1995, Somatic embryogenesis in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 287–302. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bonga, J.M., K. Klimaszewska, M.-A. Lelu, M. and P. von Aderkas, 1995. Somatic embryogenesis in Larix. In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 315–340. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bonga, J.M., Y.S. Park, S. Cameron, and P.J. Charest, 1997, Application of in vitro techniques in the preservation of conifer germplasm and in conifer tree improvement. In: M.K. Razdan and E.C. Cocking (Eds.), Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources in Vitro, pp. 107–122. Science Publishers Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulay, M.P., Gupta, P.K., Krogstrup, K., and Durzan, D.J. 1988. Development of somatic embryos from cell suspension cultures of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.). Plant Cell Rep 7: 134–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourgkard, F., and Favre, J.M. 1988. Somatic embryos from callus of Sequoia sempervirens. Plant Cell Rep 7: 445–448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bozhkov, P.V., Lebedenko, L.A., and Shiryaeva, G.A. 1992. A pronounced synergistic effect of abscisic acid and 6-benzyladenine on Norway spruce (Picea abies ( L.) Karst.) somatic embryo maturation. Plant Cell Rep 11: 386–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bozkov, P.V. 1995. Genotypic and media factors affecting stabilization of polyembryogenic cultures in norway spruce (Picea abies ( L.) Karst.). Plant Cell Rep 14: 389–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Budimir, S., and Vujicic, R. 1992. Benzyladenine induction of buds and somatic embryogenesis in Picea omorika ( Pancic) Purk. Plant Cell Tiss Org Cult. 31: 89–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrier, D.J., Cunningham, J.E., Taylor, D.C., and Dunstan, D.I. 1997. Sucrose requirements and lipid utilization during germination of interior spruce (Picea glauca engelmannii complex) somatic embryos. Plant Cell Rep 16: 550–554.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chalupa, V. 1989. Plant regeneration by somatic embryogenesis in Norway spruce (Picea abies/L./Karst.) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea /Matt./Liebl.). Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Cechoslovaca 16: 135–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charest, P.J., and K.K. Klimaszewska, 1994, Regeneration of plants from protoplasts of Larix species (Larch), In: Y.S. Bajaj (Ed.), Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, Vol. 29, pp. 59–69. Springer- Verlag Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chee, P. 1996. Plant regeneration from somatic embryos of Taxus brevifolia. Plant Cell Rep 16: 184–187.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheliak, W.M., and Klimaszewska, K. 1991. Genetic variation in somatic embryogenic response in open-pollinated families of black spruce. Theor Appl Genet 82: 185–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheliak, W.M., and Rogers, D.L. 1990. Integrating biotechnology into tree improvement programs. Can J For Res 20: 452–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cornu, D., and Geoffrion, C. 1990. Aspects de l’embryogenése somatique chez le mélèze. Bull Soc bot Fr, 137, Actual bot (3/4): 25–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, A., E. Laine, and H. David, 1995. Somatic embryogenesis in Pinus caribaea. In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 145–182. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Dronne, S., Label, P., and Lelu, M.-A. 1997. Desiccation decreases abscisic acid content in hybrid larch (Larix x leptoeuropaea) somatic embryos. Physiol Plant 99: 433–438.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dumont-BeBoux, N., Mazari, A., Livingston, N.J., von Aderkas, P., Becwar, M.R., Percy, R., and Pond, S.E. 1996. Water relation parameters and tissue development in somatic and zygotic embryos of three pinaceous conifers. Am J Bot 83 (8): 992–996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunstan, D.L., Bekkaoui, F., Pilon, M., Fowke, L.C. and Abrams, S.R. 1988. Effects of abscisic acid and analogues on the maturation of white spruce (Picea glauca) somatic embryos. Plant Sci 58: 77–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunstan, D.I., Bethune, T.D., and Abrams, S.R. 1991. Racemic abscisic acid and abscisyl alcohol promote maturation of white spruce (Picea glauca) somatic embryos. Plant Sci 76: 219–228.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunstan, D.I., Bock, C.A., Abrams, G.D., and Abrams, S.R. 1992. Metabolism of (+)- and (-)- abscisic acid by somatic embryo suspension cultures of white spruce. Phytochemistry 31 (5): 1451–1454.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feirer, R.P., Conkey, J.H., and Verhagen, S.A. 1989. Triglycerides in embryogenic conifer calli: a comparison with zygotic embryos. Plant Cell Rep 8: 207–209.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Find, J.I. 1997. Changes in endogenous ABA levels in developing somatic embyros of Norway spruce (Picea abies ( L.) Karst.) in relation to maturation medium, desiccation and germination. Plant Sci 128: 75–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flinn, B.S., Roberts, D.R., and Taylor, I.E.P. 1991a. Evaluation of somatic embryos of interior spruce. Characterization and developmental regulation of storage proteins. Physiol Plant 82: 624–632.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flinn, B.S., Roberts, D.R., Webb, D.T., and Sutton, B.C.S. 1991b. Storage protein changes during zygotic embryogenesis in interior spruce. Tree Physiol 8: 71–81.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fowke, L.C., Attree, S.M., and Rennie, P.J. 1994. Scanning electron microscopy of hydrated and desiccated mature somatic embryos and zygotic embryos of white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss). Plant Cell Rep 13: 612–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, J.C., and Greenwood, M.S. 1991. The physical and chemical environment of the developing embryo of Pinus resinosa. Am J Bot 78 (7): 1002–1009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gay, G. 1990. Effect of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Hebeloma hiemale on adventitious root formation in derooted Pinus halepensis shoot hypocotyls. Can J Bot 68: 1265–1270

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, D.J. 1988. An electrophoretic analysis of the seed proteins from Pinus monticola and eight other species of pine. Can J Bot 66: 1808–1812.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, D.J., and Tolley, M.C. 1989. The seed proteins of white spruce and their mobilization following germination. Physiol Plant 77: 254–261.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, P.K., 1995. Somatic embryogenesis in sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana). In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 197–206. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, P.K., and Durzan, D.J. 1986. Somatic polyembryogenesis from callus of mature sugar pine embryos. Bio/Technology 4: 643–645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, P.K., and Durzan, D.J. 1987. Biotechnology of somatic polyembryogenesis and plantlet regeneration in loblolly pine. Bio/Technol 5: 147–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gutmann, M., von Aderkas, P., Label, P., and Lelu, M.-A. 1996. Effects of abscisic acid on somatic embryo maturation of hybrid larch. J Exp Bot 47: 1905–1917.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haddock, P.G. 1954. Sapling sugar pine grown from excised mature embryos. J For 52: 434–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hakman, 1. 1993. Embryology in Norway spruce (Picea abies). An analysis of the composition of seed storage proteins and deposition of storage reserves during seed development and somatic embryogenesis. Physiol Plant 87: 148–159.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hakman, I., and Fowke, L.C. 1987. Somatic embryogenesis in Picea glauca (white spruce) and Picea mariana (black spruce). Can J Bot 65: 656–659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hakman, I., Fowke, L.C., von Arnold, S. and Eriksson, T. 1985. The development of somatic embryos in tissue cultures initiated from immature embryos of Picea abies ( Norway spruce ). Plant Sci 38: 53–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hakman, I., Stahel, P., Engstrom, P., and Eriksson, T. 1990. Storage protein accumulation during zygotic and somatic embryo development in Picea abies ( Norway spruce ). Physiol Plant 80: 441–445.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hakman, I., and von Arnold, S. 1985. Plantlet regeneration through somatic embryogenesis in Picea abies ( Norway spruce ). J Plant Physiol 121: 149–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hakman, I., and von Arnold, S. 1988. Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from suspension cultures of Picea glauca (white spruce). Physiol Plant 72: 579–587.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harry, I.S., and Thorpe, T.A. 1991. Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from mature zygotic embryos of red spruce. Bot Gaz 152 (4): 446–452.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hay, E.I. 1997. Somatic embryo development and phenotypic variation in an abscisic acid-independent line of Larix x eurolepis. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Victoria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hetherington, A.M., and Quatrano, R.S. 1991. Mechanisms of action of abscisic acid at the cellular level. Tansley Review 31. New Phytol 119: 9–32.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jalonen, P., and von Arnold, S. 1991. Characterization of embryogenic lines of Picea abies in relation to their competence for maturation. Plant Cell Rep 10: 384–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jain, S.M., Dong, N., and Newton, R.J. 1988. Somatic embryogenesis in slash pine (Pinus elliottii) from immature embryos cultured in vitro. Plant Sci 65: 233–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • John, A., P. Drake, and C. Selby, 1995, Somatic embryogenesis in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.)), In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 125–144. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Joy, R.W., Yeung, E.C., Kong, L., and Thorpe, T.A. 1991. Development of white spruce somatic embryos: I. Storage product deposition. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol 27P: 32–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kartha, K.K., Fowke, L.C., Leung, N.L., Caswell, K.L., and Hakman, I. 1988. Induction of somatic embryos and plantlets from cryopreserved cell cultures of white spruce (Picea glauca). J. Plant Physiol 132: 529–539.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaul, K., 1995, Somatic embryogenesis in white pine (Pinus strobus L.). In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 257–268. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Khlifi, S. and Tremblay, F.M. 1995. Maturation of black spruce somatic embryos. Part I. Effect of Lglutamine on the number and germinability of somatic embryos. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 41: 23–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klimaszewska, K. 1989a. Plantlet development from immature zygotic embryos of hybrid larch through somatic embryogensis. Plant Sci 63: 95–103.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klimaszewska, K. 19896. Recovery of somatic embryos and plantlets from protoplast cultures of Larix x eurolepis. Plant Cell Rep 8: 440–444.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klimaszewska, K., Devantier, Y., Lachance, D., Lelu, M.A., and Charest, P.J. 1997. Larix lancina (tamarack): Somatic embryogenesis and genetic transformation. Can J For Res 27: 538–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klimaszewska, K., and Smith, D.R. 1997. Maturation of somatic embyros of Pinus strobus is promoted by a high concentration of gellan gum. Physiol Plant 100: 949–957.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klimaszewska, K., Ward, C., and Cheliak, W.M. 1992. Cryopreservation and plant regeneration from embryogenic cultures of larch (Larix x eurolepis) and black spruce (Picea mariana). J Exp Bot 43 (246): 73–79.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kong, L., and Yeung, E.C. 1992. Development of white spruce somatic embryos: II. Continual shoot meristem development during germination. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol 28P: 125–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kong, L., and Yeung, E.C. 1994. Effects of ethylene and ethylene inhibitors on white spruce somatic embryo maturation. Plant Science 104: 71–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kong, L., and Yeung, E.C. 1995. Effects of silver nitrate and polyethylene glycol on white spruce (Picea glauca) somatic embryo development: enhancing cotyledonary embryos formation and endogenous ABA content. Physiol Plant 93: 298–304.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krogstrup, P., Eriksen, E.N., Moller, J.D. and Roulund, H. 1988. Somatic embryogenesis in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) Plant Cell Rep 7: 594–597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laine, E., and David, A. 1990. Somatic embryogenesis in immature embryos and protoplasts of Pinus caribaea. Plant Sci 69: 215–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lelu, M.A., Bastien, C., Klimaszewska, K., and Charest, P.J. 1994a. An improved method for somatic plantlet production in hybrid larch (Larix x leptoeuropaea): Part 2. Control of germination and plantlet development. Plant Cell Tiss Org Cult 36: 117–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lelu, M.A., Klimaszewska, K, and Charest, P.J. 1994b. Somatic embryogenesis from immature and mature zygotic embryos and from cotyledons and needles of somatic plantlets of Larix. Can J For Res 24: 100–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lelu, M.-A., Klimaszewska, K., Pflaum, G., and Bastien, C. 1995. Effect of maturation duration on desiccation tolerance in hybrid larch (Larix x leptoeuropaea Dengler). In Vitro Cell Dev Biol 31: 1520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lelu, M.-A., and Label, P. 1994. Changes in the levels of abscisic acid and its glucose ester conjugate during maturation of hybrid larch (Larix x leptoeuropaea) somatic embryos, in relation to germination and plantlet recovery. Physiol Plant 92: 53–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Livingston, N.J., von Aderkas, P., Fuchs, E.E., and Reaney, M.J.T. 1992. Water relation parameters of embryogenic cultures and seedlings of larch. Plant Physiol 100: 1304–1309.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lulsdorf, M.M., Tautorus, T.E., Kikcio, S.I., Bethune, T.D., and Dunstan, D.I. 1993. Germination of encapsulated embryos of interior spruce (Picea glauca engelmannii complex) and black spruce (Picea mariana Mill.). Plant Cell Rep 12: 385–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minocha, S.C. 1980. Callus and adventitious shoot formation in excised embryos of white pine (Pinus strobus). Can J Bot 58: 366–370.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Misra, S. 1994. Conifer zygotic embryogenesis, somatic embryogenesis, and seed germination: Biochemical and molecular advances. Seed Sci Res 4: 357–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Misra, S., Tranberger, T.J., Leal, I., and Chattai, M. 1993. Effect of abscisic acid, osmoticum, and desiccation on synthesis of storage proteins during the development of white spruce somatic embryos. Ann Bot 71: 11–22.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Misra, S., and Green, M.J. 1991. Developmental gene expression in conifer embryogenesis and germination. II. Crystalloid protein synthesis in the developing embryo and megagametophyte of white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss). Plant Sci 78: 61–71.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mo, L.H., von Arnold, S., and Lagercrantz, U. 1989. Morphogenic and genetic stability in long-term embryogenic cultures and somatic embryos of Norway spruce (Picea abies ( L.) Karst.). Plant Cell Rep 8: 375–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagmani, R., and Bonga, J.M. 1985. Embryogenesis in subcultured callus of Larix decidua. Can J For Res 15: 1088–1091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norgaard, J.V. 1997. Somatic embryo maturation and plant regeneration in Abies nordmanniana Lk. Plant Sci 124: 211–221.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norgaard, J.V., and P.Krogstrup, 1995, Somatic embryogenesis in Abies spp. In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 341–356. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Park, Y.S., Pond, S.E., and Bonga, J.M. 1994. Somatic embryogenesis in white spruce (Picea glauca): genetic control in somatic embryos exposed to storage, maturation treatments, germination, and cryopreservation. Theor Appl Genet 89: 742–750.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piola, F., Rohr, R., and von Aderkas, P. 1995. Controlled mycorrhizal initiation as a means to improve root development in somatic embryo plantlets of hybrid larch (Larix x eurolepis). Physiol Plant 95: 575–580.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, D.R. 1991. Abscisic acid and mannitol promote early development, maturation and storage protein accumulation in somatic embryos of interior spruce. Physiol Plant 83: 247–254.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, D.R., Flinn, B.S., Webb, D.T., Webster, F.B., and Sutton, B.C.S. 1990a. Abscisic acid and indole3-butryic acid regulation of maturation and accumulation of storage proteins in somatic embryos of interior spruce. Physiol Plant 78: 355–360.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, D.R., Lazaroff, W.R., and Webster, F.B. 1991. Interaction between maturation and high relative humidity treatments and their effects on germination of Sitka spruce somatic embryos. J Plant Physiol 138: 1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, D.R., Sutton, B.C.S., Flinn, B.S. 1990b. Synchronous and high frequency germination of interior spruce somatic embryos following partial drying at high relative humidity. Can J Bot 68: 1086–1090.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sacher, J.A. 1956. Observations on pine embryos grown in vitro. Bot Gaz 117: 206–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salajova, T., Salaj, J., Jasik, J., and Kormutak, A. 1995. Somatic embryogenesis in Pinus nigra Am. In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 207–220. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sasa, M., and Krogstrup, P. 1991. Ectomycorrhizal formation in plantlets derived from somatic embryos of sitka spruce. Scand J For Res 6: 129–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schopf, J.M. 1943. The embryology of Larix. Ill Biol Monogr 19: 1–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stein, A. and Fortin, J.A. 1990. Pattern of root initiation by an ectomycorrhizal fungus on hypocotyl cuttings of Larix lanicina. Can J Bot 68: 492–498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, E.C., and Duffield, J.W. 1950. Hybrids of sugar pine by embryo culture. J For 48: 200–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tautorus, T.E., Fowke, L.C., and Dunstan, D.I. 1991. Somatic embryogenesis in conifers. Can J Bot 69: 1873–1899.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R.G., and von Aderkas, P. 1992. Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from immature embryos of western larch. Plant Cell Rep 11: 379–385.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, F.M. 1990. Somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration from embryos isolated from stored seeds of Picea glauca. Can J Bot 68: 236–242.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verhagen, S. A., and Wann, S.R. 1989. Norway spruce somatic embryogenesis: high frequency initiation from light-cultured mature embryos. Plant Cell Tiss Org Cult 16: 103–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Aderkas, P., R.G. Thompson, M. Zaki, and L. Benkrima, 1995 Somatic embryogenesis of western larch (Larix occidentalis). In: Y.P.S. Bajaj (Ed.), Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry Vol. 30, Somatic embryogenesis and synthetic seed, pp. 378–387. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • von Arnold, S., and Hakman, I. 1988. Regulation of somatic embryo development in Picea abies by abscisic acid ( ABA ). J Plant Physiol 132: 164–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Arnold, S. and Woodward, S. 1988. Organogenesis and embryogenesis in mature zygotic embryos of Picea sitchensis. Tree Physiol 4: 291–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webster, F.B., Roberts, D.R., McInnis, S.M., and Sutton, B.C.S. 1990. Propagation of interior spruce by somatic embryogenesis. Can J For Res 20: 1759–1765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westcott, R.J. 1994. Production of embryogenic callus from nonembryogenic explants of Norway spruce Picea abies ( L.) Karst. Plant Cell Rep 14: 47–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, S.M., and T.A. Thorpe, 1995, Somatic embryogenesis in Picea glauca (white spruce), P. engelmannii (Engelman spruce) and P. glauca engelmannii complex (interior spruce). In: S. M. Jain, P.K. Gupta, and R.J. Newton (Eds.), Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, pp. 37–54. Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, J.L. 1993. Somatic embryogenesis: a model for early plant development in higher plants. Plant Cell 5: 1411–1423.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. E. Irene Hay
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pierre J. Charest
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Plant Production, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

    S. Mohan Jain (Book Project Leader) (Book Project Leader)

  2. Weyerhaeuser Inc., Tacoma, Washington, USA

    Pramod K. Gupta

  3. Department of Forest Science, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, USA

    Ronald J. Newton

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hay, E.I., Charest, P.J. (1999). Somatic Embryo Germination and Desiccation Tolerance in Conifers. In: Jain, S.M., Gupta, P.K., Newton, R.J. (eds) Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants. Forestry Sciences, vol 55. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3032-7_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3032-7_3

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-90-481-5129-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-017-3032-7

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation