Abstract
A visitor to Kuala Lumpur will hardly forget the experience of strolling among the fragrant fruits sold under the overhang of the five-foot walkway during a tropical downfall. Neither will one forget the miles and miles of neon-lit shopping arcades in Tokyo which are jammed by crowds of people even at ten o’clock in the evening. Public places, such as streets, squares, parks, as well as other types unique to Asia Pacific, are the “eyes” of a city, revealing its genius loci, people, and culture in a tangible and condensed way. This is why we use the word “place” instead of “space” in the title to emphasize the physical and site-specific dimensions of our subject (e.g., it is not about the economic “space” of a market network) and to reflect our intention to study these settings not merely as physical forms, but also as milieus embedded in people’s social and cultural lives.1
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Notes
Yi-fu Tuan, Space and Place, the Perspective of Experience ( Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977 ), pp. 3–6.
Irwin Altman and Ervin H. Zube, eds., Public Places and Spaces (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), p. 1. For the implication of public space owned by private parties, see the discussion on privatization in “Equal Accessibility” of this Introduction.
Spiro Kostof, The City Assembled, the Elements of Urban Form through History ( Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1992 ), pp. 123–124.
A.E.J. Morns, History of Urban Form, Before the Industrial Revolutions ( London: George Godwin, 1979 ), pp. 50–51.
Yue-man Yeung, Changing Cities of Pacific Asia, A Scholarly Interpretation (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1990), p. 283. Some critics pointed out that inadequate roads and the unrealized mass-transit system as factors which worsened investors’ confidence in Thailand’s financial crisis of 1979, see Paul Sherer, “Battered in Bangkok: Thais Face a Reckoning as Their Boom Goes Bust,” Wall Street Journal,April 10, 1997, p. A10.
When the subdivisions of the region are concerned, the term East Asia refers to only Japan, Korea and China (including Taiwan and Hong Kong), while Southeast Asia for the rest.
United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1994 Revision (New York: United Nations, 1995), p. 27 and Table A.S.
The World Bank, World Development Report 1997 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 215. The data does not include Hong Kong (4.8%), Japan (2.9%), Singapore (6.2%) and South Korea (7.7%).
According to the World Bank, the annual growth of GDP for the region (excluding China which has been insulated from the crisis) dropped from 4.0% in 1997 to 0.7% in 1998. The Bank also projected a possibility for the growth to return to its 1997 level in two to three years. The World Bank, 1998 World Development Indicators (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1998), p. 171; The World Bank, East Asia: The Road to Recovery ( Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1998 ), p. 114.
Kris Olds, “Globalizing Shanghai: The ‘Global Intelligence Corps’ and the Building of Pudong,” Cities, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1997, p. 112.
Yue-man Yeung and Fu-chen Lo, “Globalization and World City Formation in Pacific Asia,” in Fu-chen Lo and Yue-man Yeung, eds., Globalization and the World of Large Cities ( Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1998 ), pp. 132–154.
United Nations, Tables 6, 7, and 9.
Cliff Moughtin, Urban Design: Street and Square (Oxford, UK: Butterworths, 1992), p. 1. Among the few works relevant to our subject, most of the important ones will been cited or commented later in this Introduction. Readers can find a more complete list in the Bibliography.
For examples, see Ashok K. Dutt et al., eds., The Asian City: Processes of Development, Characteristics and Planning (Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994); Dean Forbes, Asian Metropolis, Urbanization and the Southeast Asian City (Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1996); Won Bae Kim et al., eds., Culture and the City in East Asia (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1997); and Fu-chen Lo and Yue-man Yeung, eds., Emerging World Cities in Pacific Asia ( Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1996 ).
For recent examples, see Clare Cooper Marcus and Carolyn Francis, eds., People Places: Design Guidelines for Urban Open Space, 2nd edn. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1998), Allan Jacobs, Great Streets (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993), and Stephen Can et al., Public Space ( Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992 ).
Except for Chris Abel, who presented the first draft of his paper to the First Symposium held in 1995.
Christopher Alexander, Notes on the Synthesis of Form ( Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964 ), pp. 19–22.
The World Bank, 1998 World Development Indicators,pp. 12–13. To a certain degree, the different levels of wealth of Asia Pacific countries indicate the following sequence these countries (or areas) entered the fast track of economic development: Japan in the 1950s, the “Four Tigers” (Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan) in the 1960s, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand in the 1970s, and the Philippines and China in the 1980s.
The urbanization rate measures the urban population as the percentage of total population. World Bank, 1998 World Development Indicators,pp. 154–156; Ashok K. Dutt and Naghun Song, “Urbanization in Southeast Asia,” in Dutt et al., pp. 164–167.
United Nations, pp. 8–9; P.P. Karan, “The City in Japan,” in P.P. Karan and Kristin Stapleton, eds., The Japanese City ( Lexington, KE: The University Press of Kentucky, 1997 ), p. 23.
Kim et al., pp. 1–2.
Forbes, pp. 29, 60; Martin Perry et al., Singapore, A Developmental City State ( Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1997 ), p. 210.
Brian S. Marsden, “A Pressured Place: The Structural Context of Environmental Planning in Hong Kong,” Planning and Development, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1995, p. 9.
The World Bank, China: Urban Land Management in an Emerging Market Economy ( Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1993 ), p. 2.
Guiqing Yang, “Residents’ Thoughts and Value Direction in an Old Urban Neighborhood,” Cheng Shi Gui Hua Hui Kan (Urban Planning Forum), Vol. 77 (January 1992), pp. 54–55.
Frank Leeming, Street Studies in Hong Kong, Localities in a Chinese City ( Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1977 ), p. 38.
For example, see Marsden, and Jack Sidener, “Creating the Exuberant City: Lessons for Seattle from Hong Kong,” Arcade,Vol. XV, No. 4 (Summer 1997), pp. 32–35.
United Nations, Tables 1 and A.17.
T.G. McGee, The Southeast Asian City, A Social Geography of the Primate Cities of Southeast Asia (New York: Praeger, 1969), pp. 54–55; Peter J. Rimmer, “International Transport and Communications Interactions between Pacific Asia’s Emerging World Cities,” in Lo and Yeung, Emerging World Cities in Pacific Asia,pp. 48–95.
McGee, The Southeast Asian City,pp. 126–129.
Hanchao Lu, `Away from Nanking Road: Small Stores and Neighborhood Life in Modern Shanghai,“ Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 54, No. 1 (February 1995), p. 96.
Roger Mark Selya, Taipei (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1995), pp. 36–37; Ken Yeang, The Tropical Verandah City, Some Urban Design Ideas for Kuala Lumpur ( Kuala Lumpur: Longman Malaysia, 1987 ), p. 16.
Michael Hebbert, “Sen-biki amidst Desakota: Urban Sprawl and Urban Planning in Japan,” in Philip Shapira et al., eds., Planning for Cities and Regions in Japan ( Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994 ), p. 74.
Gideon Sjoberg, The Preindustrial City, Past and Present ( Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1960 ), p. 102.
T.G. McGee, “The Emergence of Desakota Regions in Asia,” in Norton Ginsburg et al., eds., The Extended Metropolis: Settlement Transition in Asia ( Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1991 ), p. 7.
Tu Wei-ming, ed., Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 1–10; Kim et al., pp. 1–11.
Kim et al., pp. 8–9; for examples in particular cities, see Roman Cybriwsky, Tokyo, the Shogun’s City at the Twenty-First Century (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998), p. 196; Joochul Kim and Sang-Chuel Choe, Seoul, the Making of a Metropolis (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1997), pp. 159–172; Selya, pp. 143–144; Chin-jung Lin, Tu Shih She Chi Tsai Taiwan (Urban Design in Taiwan) (Taipei: Chuang-xing, 1995), pp. 287–292; Perry et al., pp. 220–226, 297–298.
For examples in particular cities, see Selya, pp. 44–49; Kim et al., pp. 104–105; Christopher Lingle, The Rise and Decline of the Asian Century (Hong Kong: Asia 2000, 1998), pp. 193–217; Trinh Duy Luan, “Hanoi: Balancing Market and Ideology,” in Kim et al., pp. 168–183; Perry et al., pp. 218–220.
Forbes, p. 76; Kim and Choe, pp. 167, 207; also see Tu, pp. 270–272.
Selya, pp. 44–49.
Lingle, pp. 142–169; Ambrose Y.C. King, “The Transformation of Confucianism in the Post Confucian Era: The Emergence of Rationalistic Traditionalism in Hong Kong,” in Tu, pp. 265–276.
For an example of professionals’ opinion, see Yoshinobu Ashihara, The Hidden Order: Tokyo through the Twentieth Century ( Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1989 ).
For example, see the account of construction processes of several major urban redevelopment projects in Seoul in Hyungmin Pai, “Modernism, Development, and the Transformation of Seoul: A Study of the Development of Sae’oon Sang’ga and Yoido,” in Kim et al., pp. 115–121; for the political pressure for regional architecture, see Tay Kheng Soon, Mega-Cities in the Tropics: Towards an Architectural Agenda for the Future ( Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989 ), pp. 8–11.
McGee, The Southeast Asian City, pp. 52–75, and Dualism in the Asian City: The Implications for City and Regional Planning (Hong Kong: Center of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1970 ), pp. 35–36.
Cybriwsky, p. 36.
McGee, The Southeast Asian City,pp. 24, 34, 56.
Yoshinobu Ashihara, The Aesthetic Townscape (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983), p. 38. The European-square tradition was codified by the 19th-century Austrian architect Camillo Sitte in The Art of Building Cities ( New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1945 ).
Peter J.M. Nas, ed., The Indonesian City ( Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Foris Publications, 1986 ), p. 23.
Zixuan Zhu and Reginald Yin-wang Kwok, “Beijing: The Expression of National Political Ideology,” and Takashi Machimura, “Building a Capital for Emperor and Enterprise: The Changing Urban Meaning of Central Tokyo,” in Kim et al., pp. 125–165.
Pu Miao, “Seven Characteristics of Traditional Urban Form in Southeast China,” Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review,Vol. 1, No. 2 (Spring 1990), pp. 39–40; Nas, p. 23.
Sjoberg, pp. 91–103.
Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land, the Development of Landscape Architecture ( Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971 ), pp. 221–232.
Kisho Kurokawa, Rediscovering Japanese Space (Tokyo: John Weatherhill, 1988), pp. 1, 1920, 89. For empirical research, see Hidetoshi Kato, ed., A Comparative Study of Street Life: Tokyo, Manila, New York (Tokyo: Research Institute for Oriental Cultures, Gakushuin University, 1978 ).
Yeang, pp. 35–39.
Sitte, p. 28.
Yoshinobu Ashihara, Exterior Design in Architecture (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970), pp. 31–36; The Aesthetic Townscape, pp. 41–44; Botond Bognar, Tokyo ( London: Academic Editions, 1997 ), pp. 28–29.
Ashihara, pp. 57–58; Bognar, Tokyo,p. 16.
Selya, pp. 229–230.
Cybriwsky, pp. 106–107.
Yeung, pp. 237–252.
Shijie Ribao (World Journal), Hawaii edition, May 7, 1997, p. 11.
Deborah Pellow, “No Place to Live, No Place to Love: Coping in Shanghai,” in Greg Guldin and Aidan Southall, eds., Urban Anthropology in China (Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1993), p. 419. The author reported an average living space per Shanghai resident of 6.3 square meters.
John Clammer, Contemporary Urban Japan: A Sociology of Consumption (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, 1997), pp. 74–75; Leeming, p. 38.
Botond Bognar, Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Its Development and Challenge (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1985), pp. 70–71; Ho Kong Chong and Valerie Lim Nyuk Eun, “Backlanes as Contested Regions: Construction and Control of Physical Space,” in Chua Benghuat and Norman Edwards, eds., Public Space: Design, Use and Management ( Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1992 ), pp. 40–52.
Sjoberg, p. 93.
Tu, pp. 7–8.
Kisho Kurokawa, Intercultural Architecture, the Philosophy of Symbiosis ( Washington, DC: The AIA Press, 1991 ), pp. 99–109.
T.G. McGee, Hawkers in Hong Kong ( Hong Kong: Center of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1973 ), pp. 172–186.
Fred Thompson, “Japanese Mountain Deities,” Architectural Review,Vol. CCII, No. 1208 (October 1997), pp. 78–83.
For the public space in the modern housing estates, see Ooi Giok Ling and Thomas T.W. Tan, “The Social Significance of Public Spaces in Public Housing Estates,” in Beng-huat and Edwards, pp. 69–81; Kim and Choe, pp. 191–200.
Paul Ricoeur, History and Truth ( Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1965 ), pp. 271–274.
The Modernist (or International) model for urban planning was developed in the 1930s by leading members of the International Congress for Modern Architecture and best summarized in Le Corbusier’s The Athens Charter (New York: Grossman Publisher, 1973). After being tested in postwar Western urban reconstruction, the model was criticized by many Western urban scholars in the 1960s for its flaws, such as the simplistic division of a city into functional zones, the preoccupation with traffic efficiency, and the wholesale rejection of traditional urban form. See Peter Hall, The Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1988), pp. 204–240.
David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Changes (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1990), pp. 271, 302; also see Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic Books, 1973), pp. 475–480. Even though not all Asia Pacific societies have marched into the post-modern/industrial phase, some characteristics of the post-modern culture are visible in the region due to the strong influence of Western culture.
Jon Lang, Urban Design: The American Experience (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1994), pp. 252–298; Harvey, pp. 295–296.
Perry et al., pp. 220, 253. The wholesale demolition has been wide spread among cities of the region.
See En-jian Cheng, “Creating More New Buildings with a National Style,” in Leighton Liu, ed., Paper Abstracts, First International Symposium on Asia Pacific Architecture: The East-West Encounter (Honolulu, HI: School of Architecture, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1995), p. 7; also see “The East-versus-West Bipolarity” in this Introduction.
Aye Öncü and Petra Weyland, eds., Space, Culture and Power: New Identities in Globalizing Cities ( London: Zed Books, 1997 ), p. 11.
Ricoeur, p. 281.
Cybriwsky, pp. 137–139.
Masahiko Honjo, “The Growth of Tokyo as a World City,” in Lo and Yeung, Globalization and the World of Large Cities,pp. 128–129.
Guiqing Yang, “Analysis and Discussion on the Survey of Living Environment and Social Psychology of Residents in High Rise Apartments in Shanghai,” Cheng Shi Gui Hua Hui Kan (Urban Planning Forum), Vol. 122 (July 1999), pp. 35–38.
Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization ( Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996 ), p. 17.
Charles Correa, The New Landscape, Urbanization in the Third World ( London: Butterworth Architecture, 1989 ), p. 42.
Kim and Choe, pp. 223–224; Selya, pp. 245–246.
For example, see the description of the posh shopping center Plaza Indonesia in Jakarta by Forbes, pp. 56–58.
Yeang, pp. 27–28.
Scott Macleod and T.G. McGee, “The Singapore—Johore—Riau Growth Triangle: An Emerging Extended Metropolitan Region,” in Lo and Yeung, Emerging World Cities in Pacific Asia pp. 458—459.
Richard D. Rush, “Shanghai: Home of the Handmade Highrise,” Progressive Architecture, March 1995, pp. 35–36.
Peter Davey, “High Expectations” and James Pearson, “Delicate Essen,” Architectural Review,Vol. CCII, No. 1205 (July 1997), pp. 26–45.
For example, see Hall, pp. 36, 356; Jack Sidener, “Hong Kong: A Model for Sustainable Transport and Land Use Planning,” unpublished paper prepared for the APEC Energy for Sustainable Communities Liaison Group, Honolulu, HI, 1998.
The world average of arable land per capita in 1990 is 0.27 hectare, the numbers for selected Asia Pacific countries are 0 (Singapore), 0.04 (Japan), 0.05 (South Korea), 0.08 (China), 0.10 (Viet Nam), 0.12 (Indonesia), 0.13 (Philippine), 0.27 (Malaysia), and 0.41 (Thailand), see Robert Engelman and Pamela LeRoy, “Conserving Land: Population and Sustainable Food Production,” Population and Environment Linkages Services,on line, National Council for Science and the Environment, available: www.cnie.org/pop/conserving/landuse.htm, October 10, 2000.
For example, see Yeung, pp. 180–181; Sang-chuel Choe, “Urban Corridors in Pacific Asia,” in Lo and Yeung, Globalization and the World of Large Cities,p. 172.
Lingle, pp. 193–217; Hilary Roxe, “Hong Kong Should Be Ashamed,” Time (International Edition), Vol. 153, No. 8 (March 1, 1999), on line, available http://cgi.pathfinder.com/time/asia/magazine/1999/990301 August 10, 2000.
Marsden, pp. 18–20.
Carr et al., p. 45.
Robert Powell, Line, Edge and Shade: The Search for a Design Language in Tropical Asia ( Singapore: Page One Publishing Pte, 1997 ), pp. 145–152.
Perry et al., pp. 253, 266–267.
Selya, pp. 143–145.
Michael Pinches, “Modernisation and the Quest for Modernity: Architectural Form, Squatter Settlements and the New Society in Manila,” in Marc Askew and William S. Logan, eds., Cultural Identity and Urban Change in Southeast Asia: Interpretative Essays ( Geelong, Australia: Deakin University Press, 1994 ), pp. 13–14.
McGee, The Southeast Asian City, pp. 139–141; Victor F.S. Sit, Beijing: The Nature and Planning of a Chinese Capital City ( Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1995 ), pp. 310–313.
Trevor Boddy, “Underground and Overhead: Building the Analogous City,” and Mike Davis, “Fortress Los Angeles: The Militarization of Urban Space,” in Michael Sorkin, ed., Variations on a Theme Park: The New American City and the End of the Public Space ( New York: HarperCollins, 1992 ), pp. 123–180.
In China, a new real-estate phrase, “all-sealed (quan fengbi) neighborhood” has been created for such an estate.
Carr et al., pp. 278–289.
Kim et al., pp. 10–11.
For example, from 1966 to 1990 when Taiwan’s economy took off, the percentage of Taipei’s land used for parks and playgrounds dropped from 2.5 to 1.3, see Selya, p. 29.
Forbes, pp. 102–103.
Sara Liss-Katz, “Fort Bonifacio Global City: A New Standard for Urban Design in Southeast Asia,” in Hemalata C. Dandekar, ed., City, Space, and Globalization: An International Perspective (Ann Arbor, MI: College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Michigan, 1998 ), p. 65.
Ricoeur, pp. 271–272.
Richard Hornik, “The Myth of the Miracle,” Time,Vol. 150, No. 24 (December 8, 1997); Lingle, pp. 142–169.
Olds, pp. 117–118.
Bay Joo Hwa Philip et al., ed., Contemporary Singapore Architecture 1960’s to 1990’s ( Singapore: Singapore Institute of Architects, 1998 ), p. 256.
Kurokawa, Rediscovering Japanese Space,p. 54.
Kurokawa, Rediscovering Japanese Space,pp. 19–20.
Fumihiko Maki, “Japanese City Spaces and the Concept of oku,” Japan Architect, No. 265 (May 1979), pp. 51–62.
Liangyong Wu, Rehabilitating the Old City of Beijing: A Project in the Ju’er Hutong Neighborhood ( Vancouver: UBC Press, 1999 ), p. 119.
There has been controversy in Taiwan about the politicians enshrined in these memorials, which should not affect our evaluation of the space type on its own merits.
Manfred Speidel, ed., Team Zoo: Buildings and Projects 1971–1990 (New York: Rizzoli, 1991), pp. 38, 48, 112, 134.
Chris Abel, Architecture and Identity: Responses to Cultural and Technological Change ( Oxford, UK: Architectural Press, 2000 ), p. 195.
Yeang, pp. 35–52.
Tay; Powell, pp. 22–27, 41–42.
For Western urban designers’ overwhelming interest in new formal language, see Geoffrey Broadbent, Emerging Concepts in Urban Space Design ( New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990 ).
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Miao, P. (2001). Introduction. In: Miao, P. (eds) Public Places in Asia Pacific Cities. The GeoJournal Library, vol 60. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2815-7_1
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