Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Environmental Impacts of Microbial Insecticides pp 177–220Cite as

Biocontrol Nematodes

  • Chapter

Part of the book series: Progress in Biological Control ((PIBC,volume 1))

Abstract

This chapter deals with entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) of the genera Heterorhabditis and Steinernema, which are symbiotically associated with enterobacteria of the genera Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus, respectively. Not considered is the rhabditid nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita, which is pathogenic to slugs (Deroceras spp.) when cultured on the bacteria Moraxella osloensis or a specific strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens (Wilson et al. 1995 a, b). P. hermaphrodita is used since 1995 in house gardens in Northern Europe. Data on the risk related to the use of this nematode are scarce. However, several aspects of EPN biology and ecology can also be applied to P. hermaphrodita.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adams, B. J. and K. B. Nguyen. 2002. Taxonomy and systematics. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 1–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akhurst, R. J., R. A. Bedding, R. M. Bull and R. J. Smith. 1992. An epizootic of Heterorhabditis spp. (Heterorhabditidae: Nematoda) in sugar cane scarabaeid Coleoptera. Fundara. appl. Nematol. 15: 71–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akhurst, R. and K. Smith. 2002. Regulation and safety. In R. Gaugler.(ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 311–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barbercheck, M. E. and L. C. Millar. 2000. Environmental impacts of entomopathogenic nematodes used for biological control in soil. In P. A. Follett and J. J. Duan (eds.), Nontarget Effects of Biological Control. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, NL. p. 287–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bathon, H. 1996. Impact of entomopathogenic nematodes on non-target hosts. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 421–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battisti, A. 1994. Effects of entomopathogenic nematodes on the spruce web-spinning sawfly Cephalcia arvensis Panzer and its parasitoids in the field. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 4: 95–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedding, R. A. 1981. Low cost in-vitro mass production of Neoaplectana and Heterorhabditis species (Nematoda) for field control of insect pests. Nematologica 27: 109–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedding, R. A. 1984. Large scale production, storage and transport of the insect-parasitic nematodes Neoaplectana spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. Ann. Appl. Biol. 104: 117–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedding, R. A. 1993. Biological control of Sirex noctilio using the nematode Deladenus siricidicola. In R. Bedding, R. Akhurst,and H. K. Kaya (eds.), Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insect Pests. CSIRO, East Melbourne. p. 11–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedding, R. A., and R. J. Akhurst. 1975. A simple technique for the detection of insect parasitic nematodes in soil. Nematologica 21: 109–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedding, R. A., S. Tyler and N. Rochester. 1996. Legislation on the introduction of exotic entomopathogenic nematodes into Australia and New Zealand. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 465–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belair, G., C. Vincent and G. Chouinard. 1998. Foliar sprays with Steinernema carpocapsae against early-season apple pests. J. Nematol. 30: 599–606.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bird, A. F. and R. J. Akhurst. 1983. The nature of the intestinal vesicle in nematodes of the family Steinernematidae. Int. J. Parasitol. 13: 599–606.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackshaw, R. P. and C. R. Newell. 1987. Studies of temperature limitations to Heterorhabditis heliothidis activity. Nematologica. 33: 180–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaxter, M. L., P. de Ley, J. R. Garey, L. X. Liu, P. Scheldeman, A. Vierstraete, J. R. Vanfleteren, L. Y. Mackey, M. Dors, L. M. Frisse, J. T. Vida and T. W. Kelley. 1998. A molecular evolutionary framework for the phylum Nematoda. Nature 392: 71–75.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boemare, N. 2002. Biology, taxonomy and systematics of Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 35–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boemare, N. E., C. Laumond and H. Mauleon. 1996. The entomopathogenic nematode-bacterium complex: Biology, life cycle and vertebrate safety. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 333–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brust, G. E. 1991. Augmentation of an endemic entomogenous nematode by agroecosystem manipulation for the control of a soil pest. Agric. Ecosys. Environm. 36: 175–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buck, M. and H. Bathon. 1993. Auswirkungen des Einsatzes entomopathogener Nematoden Heterorhabditis sp. im Freiland auf die Nichtzielfauna. 2. Teil: Diptera. Anz. Schädlingskde. Pflanzenschutz, Umweltschutz 66: 84–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burman, M. 1982. Neoaplectana carpocapsae: Toxin production by axenic insect parasitic nemtodes. Nematologica 28: 62–70.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cabanillas, H. E. and J. R. Raulston. 1994. Evaluation of the spatial pattern of Steinernema riobravis in corn plots. J. Nematol. 26: 25–31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. F. and R. Gaugler. 1993. Nictation behaviour and its ecological implications in the host search strategies of entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae. Behaviour 126: 155–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. F., E. Lewis, F. Yoder and R. Gaugler. 1995. Entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) seasonal population dynamics and impact on insect populations in turfgrass. Biol. Contr. 5: 598–606.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. F., E. Lewis, F. Yoder and R. Gaugler. 1996. Entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae spatial distribution in turfgrass. Parasitol. 113: 473–482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caroli, L., I. Glazer and R. Gaugler. 1996. Entomopathogenic nematode infectivity assay: Comparison of penetration rate into different hosts. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 227–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choo, H. Y., H. K. Kaya, T. M. Burlando and R. Gaugler. 1989. Entomopathogenic nematodes: host-finding ability in the presence of plant roots. Environ. Entomol. 18: 1136–1140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cobb, N. A. 1918. Estimating the nema population of the soil. Agric. Tech. Circ. Bur. Pl. Ind. U.S. Dep. Agric. 1: 48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curto, G., M. Boselli and M. Ricci. 2001. Winter field trial against black vine weevils Otiorhynchus sulcatus in potted Euonymus japonica using the cold active nematode Steinernema kraussei N0093 strain. In C. T. Griffin, A. M. Burnell, M. J. Downes and R. Mulder (eds.), COST Action 819–Developments in Entomopathogenic Nematode/Bacterial Research. European Commission EUR 19696. p. 285–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doeleman, J. A. 1990. Benefits and costs of entomopathogenic nematodes: two biological control applications in China. In ACIAR, Economic Assessment Series. ACIAR, Canberra. p. 3–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowds, B. C. A. and A. Peters 2002. Virulence mechanisms. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon UK. p. 79–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunphy, G. B. and J. M. Webster. 1988. Virulence mechanisms of Heterorhabditis heliothidis and its bacterial associate, Xenorhabdus luminescens, in non-immune larvae of the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella. Int J. Parasitol. 18: 729–737.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U. 1996. Current and future use of nematodes in biocontrol: Practice and commercial aspects in regard to regulatory policies. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 303–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U. 1998. Entomopathogenic nematodes–Save biocontrol agents for sustainable systems. Phytoprotection 79: 94–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U. 2001. Mass production of entomopathogenic nematodes for plant protection. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 56: 623–633.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U., K. V. Deseö and E. Stackebrandt, E. 1991. Identification of Steinernema spp. Nematoda and their symbiotic bacteria Xenorhabdus spp. from Italian and German soils. Nematologica 37: 360–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U. and H. M. T. Hokkanen. 1996. Insect biocontrol with non-endemic entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp.: Conclusions and recommendations of a combined OECD and COST workshop on scientific and regulatory policy issues. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 295–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U., S. Lunau, K. Krasomil-Osterfeld and K. H. Osterfeld. 1998. Liquid culture of the entomopathogenic nematode-bacterium complex Heterorhabditis megidis/Photorhabdus luminescens. BioControl 43: 77–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U., I. Niemann, S. Hollmer, O. Strauch, D. Jende, M. Shanmugasundaram, U. K. Mehta, S. K. Easwaramoorthy and A. Burnell. 2000. Mass production potential of the bacto-helminthic biocontrol complex Heterorhabditis indica–Photorhabdus luminescens. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 10: 607–616

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U. and A. Peters. 1998. Bekämpfung von Engerlingen auf Sportrasen. Rasen/Turf/Gazon 293: 60–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U., A. Wulff and A. Peters. 1997. Pathogenicity of axenic Steinernema feltiae, Xenorhabdus bovienii and the bacto-helminthic complex to larvae of Tipula oleracea Diptera and Galleria mellonella Lepidoptera. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 69: 212–217.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, R.-U., U. Wyss and E. Stackebrandt. 1988. 16S RNA cataloguing and the phylogenetic position of the genus Xenorhabdus. System. Appl. Microbiol. 10: 121–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Endo, B. Y. and W. R. Nickle, W. R. 1994. Ultrastructure of the buccal cavity region and oesophagus of the insect parasitic nematode, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. Nematologica 40: 379–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • EPPO. 2002. List of biological control agents widely used in the EPPO region, http://www.eppo.org/quarantine/biocontrol/bio-list.html.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fan, X. and W. M. Hominick. 1991. Efficiency of the Galleria wax moth baiting technique for recovering infective stages of entomopathogenic rhabditids Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae from sand and soil. Rev. Nématol. 14: 381–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO. 1994. International standards for phytosanitary measures - Reference standards. Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farmer III, J. J., J. H. Jörgensen, P. A. D. Grimont, R. J. Akhurst, G. O. Poinar Jr., E. Ageron, G. V. Pierce, J. A. Smith, G. P. Carter, K. L. Wilson and F. W. Hickman-Brenner. 1989. Xenorhabdus luminescens DNA hybridization group 5 from human clinical specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27: 1594–1600.

    Google Scholar 

  • ffrench-Constant, R. H., N. Waterfield, V. Burland, N. T. Perna, P. J. Daborn, D. Bowen and F. R. Blattner. 2000. A genomic sample sequence of the entomopathogenic bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens W14: potential implications for virulence. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 3310–3329.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, P. and E. Führer. 1990. Effect soil acidity on the entomophilic nematode Steinernema kraussei Steiner. Biol. Fertil. Soils 9: 174–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer-Le Saux, M., E. Arteaga-Hernandez, Z. Mracek and N. E. Boemare. 1999. The bacterial symbiont Xenorhabdus poinarii Enterobacteriaceae is harbored by two phylogenetic species Steinernema cubanum and Steinema glaseri Nematoda: Steinernematidae. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 29: 149–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer-Le Saux, M., H. Mauléon, P. B. Constant, N. Brunel and N. E. Boemare. 1998. PCR-ribotyping of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus isolates from the Caribbean region in relation to the taxonomy and geographic distribution of their nematode host. Appl. Environm. Microbiol. 64: 4246–4254.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forst, S. and K. Nealson. 1996. Molecular biology of the symbiotic-pathogenic bacteria Xenorhabdus spp. and Photorhabdus spp.. Microbiol. Rev. 60: 21–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaugler, R., A. Bednarek and J. F. Campbell. 1992. Ultraviolet inactivation of heterorhabditid and steinernematid nematodes. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 59: 155–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaugler, R. and g. M. Boush. 1979. Nonsusceptibility of rats to the entomogenous nematode, Neoaplectana carpocapsae. Environ. Entomol. 8: 658–660

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaugler, R., I. Glazer, J. F. Campbell,and N. Liran. 1994. Laboratory and field evaluation of an entomopathogenic nematode genetically selected for improved host-finding. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 63: 68–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaugler, R. and R. Han. 2002. Production technology. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 289–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaugler, R., L. Le Beck, B. Nakagaki and G. M. Boush. 1980. Orientation of the entomogenous nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae to carbon dioxide. Environ. Entomol. 9: 649–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geden, C. J. and R. C. Axtell. 1988. Effect of temperature on nematode Steinernema feltiae [Nematoda: Steinernematidae] treatment of soil for control of lesser mealworm (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in turkey houses. J. Econ. Entomol. 81: 800–803.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R. 2002. The biosys experiment: An insider’s perspective. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 357–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R. and R. Gaugler. 1991. Predictability in biological control using entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Econ. Entomol. 84: 713–720.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgis, R. and G. O. Jr. Poinar. 1983. Vertical migration of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and H. heliothidis Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae in sandy loam soil. J. Nematol. 15: 652–654.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, R. W. and C. C. Farrell. 1935. Field experiments with the Japanese beetle and its nematode parasite. J. N. Y. Entomol. Soc. 43: 345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazer, I. 1996. Survival mechanisms of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 373–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazer, I. 2002. Survival biology. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 169–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazer, I., S. Galper, S. and E. Sharon. 1991. Virulence of the nemtatode (Steinernematids and Hetzerorhabditids)-bacteria (Xenorhabdus spp.) Complex to the Egyptian cotton leafworm (Spodoptera littoralis, Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). J. Invertebr. Pathol. 57: 94–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazer, I., E. Kozodoi,G. Hashmi and R. Gaugler. 1996. Biological characteristics of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis sp. IS-5: A heat tolerant isolate from Israel. Nematologica 42: 481–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Götz, P., A. Boman and H. G. Boman. 1981. Interactions between insect immunity and an insect-pathogenic nematode with symbiotic bacteria. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 212: 333–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goons, J. and J. D’Herde. 1972. A method for quantitative extraction of eggs and second stage juveniles of Meloidogyne spp. from soil. Min. Agric., Agric. Res. Adm., State Agricultural Center, Ghent, Belgium: 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grewal, P. S. 2002. Formulation and application technology. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 265–287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grewal, P. S., E. E. Lewis, R. Gaugler and J. F. Campbell. 1994. Host finding behaviour as a predictor of foraging strategy in entomopathogenic nematodes. Parasitol. 108: 207–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, C. T., M. J. Downes and W. Block. 1990. Tests of Antarctic soils for insect parasitic nematodes. Antarctic Sci. 2: 221–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, R. and R.-U. Ehlers. 2000. Pathogenicity, development and reproduction of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema carpocapsae under axenic in vivo conditions. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 75: 55–58.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Han, R. and R.-U. Ehlers. 2001. Effect of Photorhabdus luminescens phase variants on the in vivo and in vitro development and reproduction of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema carpocapsae. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 35: 239–247.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harwood, S. H. and N. E. Beckage. 1994. Purification and characterization of an early-expressed polydnavirus-induced protein from the hemolymph of Manduca sexta larvae parasitized by Cotesia congregata. Ins. Biochem. Molec. Biol. 24: 685–698.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hazir, S., S. P. Stock, H. K. Kaya, A. M. Koppenhofer and N. Keskin. 2001. Developmental temperature effects on five geographic isolates of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae (Nematoda: Steinernematidae). J. Invertebr. Pathol. 77: 243–250.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hominick, W. M. 2002. Biogeography. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 115–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hominick, W. M., B. R. Briscoe, G. G. del Pino, J. Heng, D. J. Hunt, E. Kozodoy, Z. Mracek, K. B. Nguyen, A. P. Reid, S. Spiridonov, P. Stock, D. Sturhan, C. Waturu and M. Yoshida. 1997. Biosystematics of entomopathogenic nematodes: current status, protocols and definitions. J. Helminthol. 71: 271–298.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, S. and A. D. Taylor. 1997. Empirical evidence for metapopulation dynamics. In I, Hanski and M. E. Gilpin, Metapopulation Biology, Ecology, Genetics and Evolution. Academic Press, San Diego, USA. p. 27–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iraki, N., N. Salah, M. A. Sansour, D. Segal, I. Glazer, S.-A. Johnigk, M. A. Hussein and R.-U. Ehlers. 2000. Isolation and characterization of two entomopathogenic nematode strains, Heterorhabditis indica Nematoda, Rhabditida, from the West Bank, Palestinian Territories. J. Appl. Entomol. 124: 375–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, G. J. and P. C. Bradbury. 1970. Cuticular fine structure and molting of Neoaplectana glaseri Nematoda, after prolonged contact with rat peritoneal exudate. J. Parasitol. 56: 108–115.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnigk, S.-A. and R.-U. Ehlers. 1999 a. Juvenile development and life cycle of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and H. indica Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae. Nematology 1: 251–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnigk, S.-A. and R.-U. Ehlers. 1999 b. Endotokia matricida in hermaphrodites of Heterorhabditis spp. and the effect of the food supply. Nematology 1: 717–726.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K. 2002. Natural enemies and other antagonists. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 189–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaya, H. K. and A. M. Koppenhöfer. 1996. Effects of microbial and other antagonistic organisms and competition on entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 357–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kermarrec, A. and H. Mauleon. 1985. Potential noxiousness of the entomopathogenic nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae Weiser to the Antillan toad Bufo marinus L. Med. Fac. Landbouw. University of Gent 50: 831–838.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kermarrec, A., H. Mauleon, C. Sirjusingh and L. Baud. 1991. Etudes experimentale de la sensibilite de vertebres heterothermes tropicaux crapauds, grenouilles, lezards a diverses souches de nematodes entomoparasites des genres Heterorhabditis et Steinernema. In INRA, Recontres caraibes en lutte biologique, Guadelope, 5–7 novembre 1990. INRA, Paris. p. 193–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobayashi, M., H. Okano and S. Kirihara. 1987. The toxity of steinernematid and heterorhabditid nematodes to the male mice. In N. Ishibashi (ed.), Recent advances in biological control of insect pests by entomogenous nematodes in Japan. Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, Japan, Saga University, Japan. p. 153–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koch, U. and H. Bathon. 1993. Results of the outdoor application of entomopathogenic nematodes on nonobjective fauna 1 Coleoptera. Anz. Schadlingsk. Pflanz. Umwelt. 66: 65–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Kung, S. P., R. Gaugler and H. K. Kaya. 1990. Soil type and entomopathogenic nematode persistence. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 55: 401–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lacey, L. A., H. K. Kaya and R. Bettencourt. 1995. Dispersal of Steinernema glaseri (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) in adult Japanese beetles, Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Biocontr. Sci.Technol. 5: 121–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, E. E. 2002. Behavioural ecology. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 205–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, E. E., R. Gaugler and R. Harrison. 1993. Response of cruiser and ambusher entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernematidae to host volatile cues. Can. J. Zool. 71: 765–769.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J., R. E. Berry, M. S. Blouin and Liu, J. 1999. Molecular differentiation and phylogeny of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) based on ND4 gene sequences of mitochondrial DNA. J. Parasitol. 85: 709–715.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lunau, S., S. Stoessel, A. J. Schmidt-Peisker and R.-U. Ehlers. 1993. Establishment of monoxenic inocula for scaling up in vitro cultures of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. Nematologica 39: 385–399.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millar L. C. and M. E. Barbercheck. 2001. Interaction between endemic and introduced entomopathogenic nematodes in conventionaltill and notill corn. Biol. Contr. 22: 235–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R. W. 1989. Novel pathogenicity assessment technique for Steinernema and Heterorhabditis entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Nematol. 21: 574.

    Google Scholar 

  • Molyneux, A. S. 1986. Heterorhabditis spp. and Steinernema (Neoaplectana) spp.: Temperature and aspects of behavior and infectivity. Exp. Parasitol. 62: 169–180.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, J. A. W., V. Kuntzelman, S. Tavenor, M. A. Ousley and C. Winstanley. 1997. Survival of Xenorhabdus nematophilus and Photorhabdus luminescens in water and soil. J. Appl. Microbiol. 83: 665–670.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, O. N., V. Converse and J. Harding. 1990. Virulence of entomopathogenic nematode-bacteria complexes for larvae of noctuids, a geometrid and a pyralid. Can. Entomol. 122: 309–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Mracek, Z. and J. M. Webster. 1993. Survey of heterorhabditidae and Steinemematidae Rhabditida, Nematoda in Western Canada. J. Nematol. 25: 710–717.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, K. B., J. Matuniak and B. J. Adams. 2001. The diagnostic and phylogenetic utility of th rDNA internal transcribed spacer sequences of Steinernema. J. Nemat. in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, K. B., G. C. Smart, Jr. 1990. Vertical dispersal of Steinernema scapterisci. J. Nematol. 22: 574–578.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, K. B. and G. C. Smart, Jr. 1991. Pathogenicity of Steinernema scapterisci to selected invertebrates. J. Nematol. 23: 7–11

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Obendorf, D. L., B. Peel, R. J. Akhurst and L. A. Miller. 1983. Non-susceptibility of mammals to the entomopathogenic bacterium Xenorhabdus nematophilus. Environ. Entomol. 12: 368–370

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD. 2003. Guidance for registration requirements for invertebrates as biological control agents (IBCAs), in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkman, J. P., J. H. Frank, K. B. Nguyen and G. C. Smart, Jr. 1993. Dispersal of Steinernema scapterisci (Rhabditida: Steinemematidae) after inoculative applications for mole cricket Orthoptera: Gryllotalipidae control in pastures. Biol. Contr. 3: 226–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkman, J. P. and G. C. Smart, Jr. 1996. Entomopathogenic nematodes, a case study: Introduction of S. scapterisci in Florida. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 413–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patel, M. N., R. N. Perry and D. J. Wright. 1997. Desiccation survival and water contents of entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema spp. Rhabditida: Steinemematidae. Int. J. Parasitol. 27: 61–70.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peel, M. M., D. A. Alfredson, J. G. Gerrad, J. M. Davis, J. M. Robson, R. J. McDougall, B. L. Scullie and R. J. Akhurst. 1999. Isolation, identification and molecular characterization of strains of Photorhabdus luminescens from infected humans in Australia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37: 3647–3653.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, A. 1996. The natural host range of Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp. and their impact on insect populations. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 389–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, A. and R.-U. Ehlers. 1994. Susceptibility of leatherjackets Tipula paludosa and T. oleracea, Tipulidae: Nematocera to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 63: 163–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, A. and R.-U. Ehlers. 1997. Encapsulation of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema feltiae in Tipula oleracea. J. Invert. Pathol. 69: 218–222.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, A., D. H. Gouge, R.-U. Ehlers, N. G. M. Hague. 1997. Avoidance of encapsulation by Heterorhabditis spp. infecting larvae of Tipula oleracea. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 70: 161–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poinar, G. O., Jr. 1975. Entomogenous nematodes, a manual and host list of insect-nematode associations. Leiden, NL, E.J. Brill. pp. 317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poinar, G. O., Jr. 1990. Biology and taxonomy of Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae. In R. Gaugler and H. K. Kaya (eds.), Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control. CRC Press, Boca Raton. p. 23–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poinar, G. O., Jr. and G. M. Thomas. 1988. Infection of frog tadpoles amphibia by insect parasitic nematodes Rhabditida. Experientia 44: 528–531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poinar, G. O., Jr., G. M. Thomas, S. B. Presser and J. L. Hardy. 1982. Inoculation of entomogenous nematodes, Neoaplectana and Heterorhabditis and their associated bacteria, Xenorhabdus spp., into chicks and mice. Environ. Entomol. 11: 137–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Popiel, I., D. L. Grove and M. J. Friedman. 1989. Infective juvenile formation in the insect parasitic nematode Steinernema feltiae. Parasitol. 99: 77–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rethmeyer, U. 1991. Auswirkungen eines Einsatzes entomopathogener Nematoden auf die Bodenfauna verschiedener Biotope. Dissertation, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricci, M., I. Glazer, J. F. Campbell and R. Gaugler. 1996. Comparison of bioassays to measure virulence of different entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 235–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, P. N. 1996. British and European legislation regulating rhabditid nematodes. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 449–463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rizvi, S. A., R. Hennessey and D. Knott. 1996. Legislation on the introduction of exotic nematodes in the US. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 477–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ropek, D. and M. Jaworska. 1994. Effect of an entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae Weiser Nematoda, Steinernematidae, on carabid beetles in field trials with annual legumes. Anz. Schädlingskde. Pflanzenschutz, Umweltschutz 67: 97–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutherford, T. A., D. Trotter and J. M. Webster. 1987. The potential of heterorhabditid nematodes as control agents of root weevils. Can. Ent. 119: 67–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, W. J., J. B. Beavers. 1987. Movement of the entomogenous nematodes of the families Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae in soil. J. Nematol. 19: 257–259.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selvan, S., P. S. Grewal, T. Leustek and R. Gaugler. 1996. Heat shock enhances thermotolerance of infective juvenile insect-parasitic nematodes Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae. Experienta 52: 727–730.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, D. I., E. C. Berry and L. C. Lewis. 1993. Interactions between nematodes and earthworms: enhanced dispersal of Steinernema carpocapsae. J. Nematol. 25: 189–192.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., D. H. Gouge and A. M. Koppenhöfer. 2002. Factors affecting commercial success: Case studies in cotton, turf an citrus. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 333–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simoes, N. and J. S. Rosa. 1996. Pathogenicity and host specificity of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 403–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smart, G. C. and K. B. Nguyen. 1994. Rhabditis Oscheius pheropsophi n. sp Rhabditida, Rhabditidae J. Nematol. 26: 19–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smits, P. H. 1992. Control of white grubs, Phyllopertha horticola and Amphimallon solstitialis in grass with heterorhabditid nematodes. In T. A. Jackson and T. R. Glare (eds.), Use of Pathogens in Scarab Pest Management. Intercept Ltd., Hampshire, UK. p. 229–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smits, P. H. 1996. Post-application persistence of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 379–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spiridonov, S. E., E. N. Akhmedov and F. N. Belostotskaya. 1991. Proliferation of symbiotic bacteria in the intestinal vesicles of invasive larvae of Neoaplectana spp. Nematoda, Steinemematidae. Helminthol. 28: 141–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, G. 1923. Aplectana kraussei n. sp., eine in der Blattwespe Lyda sp. parasitierende Nematodenform, nebst Bemerkungen über das Seitenorgan der parasitischen Nematoden. Centr. Bakt. Abt. II. 59: 14–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, W. A. 1996. Distribution of entomopathogenic nematodes in the Swiss Alps. Revue Suisse de Zoologie 103: 439–452

    Google Scholar 

  • Stock, S. P., J. F. Campbell and S. A. Nadler. 2001. Phylogeny of Steinernema Travassos, 1927 (Cephalobina: Steinernematidae) inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences and morphological characters. J. Parasitol. 87: 877–889.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strauch, O., I. Niemann, A. Neumann, A. J. Schmidt, A. Peters and R.-U. Ehlers. 2000. Storage and formulation of the entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditis indica and H. bacteriophora. BioControl 45: 483–500

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, D. R. 2002. Populationd of entomopathogenic nematodes in foodwebs. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 225–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sturhan, D. 1996. Studies on the natural occurrence and distribution of entomopathogenic nematodes. Russ. J. Nematol. 4: 98

    Google Scholar 

  • Sturhan, D. 1999. Prevalence and habitat specificity of entomopathogenic nematodes in Germany. In R. L. Gwynn, P. H. Smits, C. Griffin, R.-U. Ehlers, N. Boemare and J. P. Masson (eds.), COST 819 Entomopathogenic nematodes–Application and persistence of entomopathogenic nematodes. European Commission EUR 18873. p. 123–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sudershan G., L. K. Singh and S. Ganguly. 2000. Steinernema thermophilum sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinemematidae) from India. Int. J. Nematol. 10: 183–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sulistyanto, D. and R.-U. Ehlers. 1996. Efficacy of the entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditis megidis and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora for the control of grubs Phyllopertha horticola and Aphodius contaminatus in golf course turf. Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 6: 247–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sulistyanto, D., I. Gottorf-Folgert and R.-U. Ehlers. 1996. Bioassays for the genetic selection of entomopathpogenic nematodes with increased penetration activity. IOBC WPRS Bulletin 19 (9): 140–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szallas, E., C. Koch, A. Fodor, J. Burghardt, O. Buss, A. Szentirmai, K. H. Nealson and E. Stackebrandt. 1997. Phylogenetic evidence for the taxonomic heterogeneity of Photorhabdus luminescens. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47: 402–407.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Timper, P., H. K. Kaya and R. Gaugler. 1988. Dispersal of the entomogenous nematode Steinernema feltiae Rhabditida: Steinernematidae by infected adult insects. Environ. Entomol. 17: 546–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vainio, A. and H. M. T. Hokkanen. 1993. The potential of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes against Otiorhynchus ovatus and O. dubius Strom (Col: Curculionidae) in the field. J. Appl. Entomol. 115: 379–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Bezooijen, J. 1999. Nematode extraction. In R. L. Gwynn, P. H. Smits, C. Griffin, R.-U. Ehlers, N. Boemare and J.-P. Masson (eds.), COST 819 Entomopathogenic nematodes–Application and persitence of entomopathogenic nematodes. European Commission EUR 18873 EN. p. 61–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Lenteren, J. C., D. Babendreier, F. Bigler, G. Burgio, H. M. T. Hokkanen, S. Kuske, A. J. M. Loomans, I. Menzler-Hokkanen, O. C. J. van Rijn, M. B. Thomas and M. G. Tommasini. 2003. Environmental risk assessment of exotic natural enemies used in inundative biological control. BioControl 48: 3–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J. X., J. T. Huang and Q. S. Chen. 1984. The safety of the nematode Neoaplectana glaseri Steiner, to vertebrates. III. A test on monkeys, Macaca mulatta. Natural Enemies of Insects 6: 41–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J. X. and Z. M. Liu. 1983. The safety of the nematode, Neoaplectana glaseri Steiner, to vertebrates. II. A test on rabbits. Natural Enemies of Insects 5: 241–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J. X., L. H. Qiu and Z. M. Liu. 1983. The safety of the nematode Neoaplectana glaseri Steiner to vertebrates. I. A test on rats. Natural Enemies of Insects 5: 39–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. and R. Gaugler. 1999. Steinernema glaseri surface coat protein suppresses the immune response of Popillia japonica Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae larvae. Biol. Contr. 14: 45–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., R. Gaugler and L. W. Cui. 1994. Variations in immune response of Popillia japonica and Acheta domesticus to Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema species. J. Nematol. 26: 11–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webster, J. M., G. Chen, K. Hu and J. Li. 2002. Bacterial metabolites. In R. Gaugler (ed.), Entomopathogenic nematology. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK. p. 99–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M. J., D. M. Glen, S. K. George and J. D. Pearce. 1995 a. Selection of a bacterium for mass production of Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Nematoda: Thabditidae) as a biocontrol agent for slugs. Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 18: 419–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M. J., D. M. Glen, J. D Pearce and P. B. Rodgers. 1995 b. Monoxenic culture of the slug parasite Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) with different bacteria in liquid and solid phase. Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 18: 159–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Womersley, C. Z. 1990. Dehydration survival and anhydrobiotic potential. In R. Gaugler and H. K. Kaya (eds.), Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control. CRC Press, Boca Raton. p. 117–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, D. J., P. S. Grewal and M. Stolinski. 1997. Relative importance of neural lipids and glycogen as energy stores in dauer larvae of two entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema feltiae. Comp. Biochem.Physiol. B, Biochem. Molec. Biol. 118: 269–273.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamanaka, S., H. Tanabe and K. Takeuchi. 2000. Influence of temperature on growth and propagation of Steinernema glaseri (Nematoda: Steinemematidae). Jap. J. Nematol. 30: 47–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zadoks, J. C. 1998. Risk analysis of beneficial microorganisms wildtypes and genetically modified. In National Chemicals Inspectorate (eds.), Microbiological plant protection products–Workshop on the scientific basis for risk assessment, Stockholm, Sweden, 26–28 October, 1998. p. 9–38.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Ralf-Udo Ehlers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Applied Biology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

    Heikki M. T. Hokkanen

  2. Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

    Ann E. Hajek

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2003 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ehlers, RU. (2003). Biocontrol Nematodes. In: Hokkanen, H.M.T., Hajek, A.E. (eds) Environmental Impacts of Microbial Insecticides. Progress in Biological Control, vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-1441-9_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-1441-9_10

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-90-481-6100-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-017-1441-9

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation