Abstract
As mentioned before, the principal hazard scenarios associated with accidental chemical releases which may lead to detrimental consequences to people and property include fires, explosions, and toxic and flammable vapor dispersion. The formation of toxic or flammable gas clouds at release point and their dispersion into the atmosphere has the potential for involving a large area and consequently exposing a large population to the danger resulting from toxic vapors, fire or explosion. In Volume I, we have presented a review concerning atmospheric dispersion models for continuous and non-point sources. In the present chapter we shall consider the dispersion of gases heavier than air.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References (Chapter 5)
Hanna, S.R., Review of atmospheric diffusion models for regulatory applications, Technical Note No. 177, Rep. No. WMO 581. Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization, Geneva - Switzerland, (1982).
Tumer, D.B., Atmospheric dispersion modeling: A critical review, J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 29 (1979) 502–519.
Simpson, J.E., Gravity currents in the laboratory, Atmosphere and Oceanic Ann. Rev. Fluid mech., 14 (1982) 213–234.
Van Ulden, A.P., The spreading and mixing of dense gas clouds in still air, Thesis of the Technische Universiteit Delft, The Netherlands, (1988).
Picknett, R.G.; Carpenter, R.J., Field Experiments on the Behavior of Dense Clouds, Chemical Defense Establishment, Porton Downs, UK, September 1978, Rep. No. Ptn. IL 1154/78/1.
Fannelop, T.K., The Dynamics of Heavy Gas Clouds, Division of Aero and Gas Dynamics, University of Trondheim, Norway, May 1980, Report IFAG B-124.
Fannelop, T.K.; Jacobsen, O., Gravitational spreading of heavy gas clouds instantaneously released, Z. Angew. Math. Phys., 35 (1984) 559–584.
Havens, J.A.; Spicer, T.O., Gravity spreading and air entrainment by heavy gases instantaneously released in a calm atmosphere, in Ooms and Tennekes (eds.), Atmospheric Dispersion of Heavy Gases and Small Particles, Springer Verlag, (1984), pp. 179–189.
Kaiser, G.D.; Walker, B.C., Releases of anhydrous ammonia from pressurized containers - The importance of denser-than-air mixtures, Atmospheric Environment, 12 (1978) 2289.
Havens, J.A., An assessment of the predictability of LNG vapour dispersion, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 3, (1980) 257.
Havens, J.A., An Assessment of predictability of LNG vapor dispersion from catastrophic spills onto water, J. Hazard. Mater., 3 (1980) 267–278.
Webber, D.M., The Physics of Heavy Gas Cloud Dispersal. Safety and Reliability Directorate, UKAEA, Culchetch, GB, Rep. No. SRD R243, (1983).
Mc Quaid, J., The box model of heavy gas dispersion: a useful and practical tool, J. Occ. Ace., 6 (1984) 253–261.
Van Ulden, A.P., On the spreading of heavy gas released near the ground. Proc. Int. Loss Prevention Symp., Ed.: C.H. Buschman, Elsevier, Amsterdam, (1974), pp. 221–226.
Cox, R.A.; Carpenter, R.J., Further development of a dense vapour cloud dispersion model for hazard analysis, Proc. of the Symposium on Heavy Gas Dispersion, Frankfurt, (1979).
Raj, P.K., On the near Field dispersion of Heavy Vapor/Aerosol Plume Generated by the Release of Pressurized Liquid Ammonia, Interim Report to U.S. Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, California, November 1980.
Raj, P.K.; Aranamuden, K., Theoretical Models Supporting the Design of Ammonia Spill Experiments, Report to the Fertilizer Institute, Washington, DC, (1980).
Jagger, S.F., Development of CRUNCH: a dispersion model for continuous release of a denser-than-air vapour in the atmosphere, UKEA Rep. No. SRD R229, (1983).
Colenbrander, G.W., A mathematical model for the transient behaviour of dense vapour clouds, 3rd International Symposium, Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries, Basel, Switzerland, (1980).
Havens, J.A., A review of mathematical models for prediction of heavy gas atmospheric dispersion, I. Chem. E. Symposium Series No. 71, 14–16 April 1982.
Wheatley, C.J.; Webber, D.M., Aspects of the Dispersion of Denser-than-Air Vapours Relevant to Gas Cloud Explosions, SRD Report to the European Atomic Energy Community, (1984).
Raj, P.K., Atmospheric Dispersion of Chemical Agents: A Model Including Thermodynamic and Heavy Gas Effects. Report to the U.S. Army by Technology Management Systems, Burlington, Mass., (1983).
Havens, J.A., A review of mathematical models for prediction of heavy gas atmospheric dispersion, International Chemical Symposium, Serial No. 71, Manchester, England, (1982).
Carslaw, H. S.; Jaeger, J.C., Conduction of Heat in Solids, 1st edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, (1947).
Rottman, J.W.; Simpson, J.E.; Hunt, J.C.R.; Britter, R.E., Unsteady gravity current flows over obstacles - Some observation and analysis related to the phase II trials, Proc. of Symp. on Heavy Gas Dispersion Trials at Thorney Island, Univ. of Sheffield 3–5 April 1984, J. Hazard Mater., (1985).
Havens, J.A., A Description and Assessment of the SIGMET LNG Vapor Dispersion Model, U.S. Coast guard, Report CG-M-3–79, February 1979.
Havens, I.A., A description and computational assessment of the SIGMET LNG vapor dispersion model, J. Hazard. Mater, 6 (1) (1982) 197–212.
Jagger, S.F., The dispersion of dense, toxic, and flammable clouds in the atmosphere, I. Mech. E. Seminar, September 1982.
Robins, A.G., Introduction to the Numerical Modelling of Dispersion in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer, in “von Karman Inst. For Fluid Dynamics”, Introduction to Numerical Solution to Industrial Flows, Vol. 1 Leatherhead (England), (1986).
Blackmore, D.R.; Herman, M.N.; Woodward, J.L., Heavy gas dispersion models, J. Hazard. Mater., 6 (1–2), (1982) 107–128.
Fannelop, T.K.; Waldman, G.D., The dynamics of oil slicks–or “creeping crude”, 9th Aerospace Science Meeting A.I.A.A., New York, January 1971. See also The dynamics of oil slick, A.I.A.A. Journal, 10 (1972) 506–510.
Van Ulden, A.P., The unsteady gravity spread of a dense gas cloud in a calm environment, in Proceedings of 10th. I.T.M. on Air Poll. Mod. and its Appl., NATO-CCMS, Rome, (1979).
Byggstoyl, S.; and Saetran, L.R., An Integral Model for gravity Spreading of Heavy Gas Clouds, Atm. Env. 17 (9), (1983) 1615–1620.
Van Ulden, A.P., A new bulk model for dense gas dispersion: two-dimensional spread in still air, in Atm. Dispersion of Heavy Gases and Small particles, in G. Ooms and H. Tennekes, (eds.), Springer Verlag, pp. 419–440, (1984).
Havens, J.A.; Spicer-T.O., Development of an Atmospheric Dispersion Model for Heavier-Than-Air Gas Mixtures. Volume 1. Final rept. Sep 80-May 85. Arkansas Univ., Fayetteville. Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Rep. No. USCGD2285.
Jagger, S.F.; Kaiser, G.D., The accidental release of dens flammable and toxic gases from pressurized containment - transition from pressure driven to gravity driven phase, Proc. 11th Int. Tech. Meeting on Air Pollution Modelling and its Apllications, Amsterdam, NATO, (1981).
Thaning, L.; Winter, S.; Nyren, K., Uppkomst och Utbredning av Explosiva och Giftiga Gasmoln: Inventering av Kunskapslaege och Forskningsbehov (Formation and Spreading of Flammable and Toxic Gas Clouds: A Survey of the Current Knowledge and Need for Research). Rep. No. FOAE40036, (1988).
Kaiser, G.D., Examples of the successful application of a simple model for the atmospheric dispersion of dense, cold vapours to the accidental release of anhydrous ammonia from pressurized containers, UKAEA Rep. No. SRD R150, (1979).
Griffiths, R.F.; Kaiser, G.D., The accidental release of anhydrous ammonia to the atmosphere - A systematic study of factors influencing cloud density and dispersion, UKAEA Rep. No. SRD R154, (1979).
Kaiser, G.D., The accidental release of anhydrous ammonia to the atmosphere–Evidence for the occurence of denser-than-air-mixtures, Loss Prevention Bull., 38 (1981) 1–22.
Havens, J.A., A review of mathematical models for prediction of heavy gas atmospheric dispersion, I. Chem. E. Symposium Series No. 71, Manchester, 14–16 April 1982.
Van Ulden, A.P., On the spreading of heavy gas released near the ground, First International Loss Symposium, The Hague, Netherlands, (1974).
Germeles, A.E.; Drake, E.M., Gravity spreading and atmospheric dispersion of LNG vapor clouds, Fourth International Symposium on Transport of Hazardous Cargo by Sea and Inland Waterways, Jacksonvillle, Florida, (1975).
Eidsvik, K.J., A Model for Heavy gas dispersion in the atmosphere, Atmospheric Environment, 14 (1980) 769–777.
Cox, R.A.; Carpenter, R.J., Further development of a dense vapor cloud dispersion model for hazard analysis, in S. Hartwig, D. Reidel (eds.), Heavy Gas and Risk Assessment, Dordrecht, Holland, (1979).
Te Riele, P.H.M., Atmospheric dispersion of heavy gases emitted at or near ground level, 2nd International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries, Heidelberg, (1977).
Flothmann, D.; Nikodem, H.J., A heavy–gas dispersion model with continuous transition from gravity spreading to tracer diffusion, in S. Hartwig. D. Reidel (eds.), Heavy Gas Risk Assessment, Dordrecht, Holland, pp. 89–102 (1980).
Ooms, G.; Mathieu, A.P.; Zelis, F, Plume paths of heavy gases, First Loss Prevention Symposium, The Hague, Netherlands, (1974).
Havens, J.A., A Description and Assessment of the SIGMET LNG Vapor Dispersion Model, U.S. Coast Guard, Rep. No. CG-M-3–79, February 1979.
Energy Resource Company, La Jolla, California.
Deygon-Ra, La Jolla, California.
Te Riele, P.H.M., Atmospheric dispersion of heavy gases emitted at or near ground level, Second International Symposium on Loss Prevention and safety Promotion in the Process Industries, Heidelberg, Germany, (1977).
Zeman, O., The Dynamics and Modeling of Heavier-than-Air, Cold Gas Releases, Lawrance Livermore Laboratory (University of California), Rep. No. UCRL-15224, April 17, (1980).
Rosenzweig, J.J., A Theoretical Model for the Dispersion of Negatively Buoyant Vapour Clouds, Ph.D. Dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (1980).
Havens, J.A., An assessment of predictability of LNG vapor dispersion from catastrophic spills onto water, J. Hazard. Mater., 3 (1980) 267–278.
Deaves, D.M., 3-Dimensional model predictions for the upwind building trial of Thomey Island Phase II, J. Hazard. Mater., 11 (1985) 341–346.
Jacobsen, O., 3-D numerical simulation of heavy gas dispersion, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 215–230.
Havens, J.A., An assessment of predictability of LNG vapor dispersion from catastrophic spills into water, Paper C2, Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on the Transport of dangerous goods by Sea and Inland Waterways, Hamburg, F.R.G., (1978).
Schnatz, G.; Flothmann, D., A K-model and its modification for the dispersion of heavy gases, in Sylvius Hartwig, (ed.), Heavy Gas Risk Assessment, Proc. Symp., (1979), Reidel, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 125–39 (1980).
Deaves, D.M., Application of a turbulence flow model to heavy gas dispersion in complex situations, in Sylvius Hartwig (ed.), Heavy Gas Risk Assessessment II, Proc. Symp., 2nd Meeting 1982, Reidel, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 91–102, (1983).
Deaves, D.M., Application of advanced turbulence models in determining the structure and dispersion of heavy gas clouds, in Ooms, G. and H. Tennekes (eds.), Atmospheric Dispersion Heavy Gases Small Part., Symp., 1983, pp. 93–103. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Federal Republic Germany, (1984).
Knox, J.N., The modeling of dispersion of heavy gases, NATO Challenges Mod. Soc., 5 (Air Pollution Model. Its Appl.), pp. 285–94, (1984).
Tasker, M.N., A review of the basic concepts of dense gas dispersion with special regard to modelling of heat transfer, Sci. Tech. Aerosp. Rep. 22(16) (1984), Abstr. No. N84–25952, (1984).
Tasker, M., Preliminary Wind Tunnel Experiments to Investigate the Effect of Heat Transfer on the Dispersion of Cold Dense Gases, Oxford Univ. ( England ). Dept. of Engineering Science, (1984).
Farmer, C.L., A survey of turbulence models with particular reference to dense gas dispersion, Rep. No. SRD R221, Safety and Reliability Directorate, UKAEA, Culcheth, (1982).
Raj, P.K., Heavy Gas Dispersion - A State-of-the-Art Review of the experimental Results and Models, Heavy Gas Dispersal Lecture Series, 1982–83, Von Karman Institute, Belgium, (1982).
Woodward, J.L.; Havens, J.A., et al., A comparison with experimental data of several models for dispersion of heavy vapor clouds, J. of Hazardous Materials, 6 (1982) 161–180.
Wheatley, C.J.; Webber, D.M., Aspects of the Dispersion of Heavier-than-air Vapours that are of Relevance to Gas Cloud Explosions, Rep. No. 007 SRUK, Commission of the European Communities ( DG XII ), Brussels, (1984).
Wheatley, C.J.; Webber, D.M., Aspects of the dispersion of denser-than-air vapours relevant to gas cloud explosions, Rep. No. SR/ 007/UK/H Final Report, Commission of the European Communities ( DG XII ), Brussels, (1984).
Gaffen, D.J.; Benocci-C.; Olivari-D., Application of a Lagrangian Dispersion Model to Environmental Problems, Von Karman Institut for Fluid Dynamics, Rhode-Saint-Genese (Belgium). Rep. No. VKITM38, (1985).
Kunkel, B.A., Development of an Atmospheric Diffusion Model for Toxic Chemical Releases, Environmental Research Papers, Oct 84-Sept. (1985), Air Force Geophysics Lab., Hanscom AFB, MA; Rep. No. AFGLTR850338, AFGLERP939.
Frayne, R., Heavy gas dispersion: Applied safety, in R.V. Portelli (ed.), Proceedings of the Heavy Gas (LNG/LPG) Workshop, pp. 108–116, (1985). Rep.No. CONF-8501127-, CE-03673, CSC-CE303673.
McQuaid, J., Overview of current state of knowledge on heavy gas dispersion and outstanding problems/-issues, in R.V. Portelli (ed.), Proceedings of the Heavy Gas (LNG/LPG) Workshop, (1985), pp. 5–28. Rep. No. CONF-8501127-, CE-03673, CSC-CE303673.
Raj, P.K, Summary of heavy gas spills modeling research, in R.V. Portelli (ed.), Proceedings of the Heavy Gas (LNG/LPG) Workshop, (1985), pp. 51–75. Rep. No. CONF-8501127-, CE-03673, CSC-CE303673.
Redondo, J.M., Effects of ground proximity on dense gas entrainment, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 381–393.
Webber, D.M.; Wheatley, C.J., The effect of initial potential energy on the dilution of a heavy gas cloud, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 357–380.
Dunst, M.; Fischer-Bruns, I.; Luksch, U., Box Model Describing the Dispersion of Heavy Gases after Accidents and Its Verification by Experiments, Meteorology Inst., Hamburg Univ. (Germany, F.R.), Rep. No. NP8770246, (1987).
Vanulden, A.P., Spreading and Mixing of Dense Gas Clouds in Still Air, Doctoral thesis, Royal Netherlands Meteorological Inst., (1987). Rep. No. KNMIWR8712.
Fischer-Bums, I., Untersuchungen Zur Ausbreitung Spontan Freigesetzter Schwerer Gase, Meteorology Institut, Hamburg University (Germany, F.R.), Rep. No. WA81, ETN8790373, (1987).
Schreurs, P.; Mewis, J., Numerical aspects of Lagrangian particle model for atmospheric dispersion of heavy gases, J. Hazard. Mater., 17 (1987) 61–80.
Tasker, M.N., Effect of Heat Transfer on the Dispersion of Cold Dense Gases, Oxford University, England, Thesis, (1987). Rep. No. OUEL168887, ETN8790974.
Mathematical models of the spreading of liquefied hydrocarbons and of the atmospheric dispersion of heavy gases, Sherbrooke, P.Q., Univ. of Sherbrooke, Thesis (July 1987). Availability: MF National Library of Canada, 395 Wellington St., Ottawa, ON, CAN K1A ON4.
Ausbreitungsrechnungen im Rahmen des Vollzugs der Stoerfall-Verordnung. Colloquium on Dispersion Evaluations in the Framework of the Implementation of the Nuclear Accident Ordinance, Muenchen (Germany, F.R.), 23–24 Nov. 1987, Umweltbundesamt - Texte, no. 1/89.
Ermak, D.L.; Merry, M.H., Methodology for Evaluating Heavy Gas Dispersion Models: Final Report, November 1985 - February 1988, Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA; Rep. No. AFESCESLTR8837.
Rodean, H.C., Toward more realistic material models for release and dispersion of heavy gases, Rep. No. UCRL-53902, (1989).
Ermak, D.L., Atmospheric dispersion models for dense gas releases, International System Safety Society (SSS), 10th conference, Dallas, TX, USA, 18–22 July (1991), Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA; Rep. No. UCRLJC107536, CONF91071143.
Tourna, J.S.; Guinnup, D.; Spicer, T., Guidance on the Application of Refined Dispersion Models for Air Toxics Releases, Final report, Rep. No. EPA450491007, (1991).
Ermak, D.L., Concept for treating dense-gas dispersion under realistic conditions of terrain and variable winds, Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. Rep. No. UCRLJC104039, CONF90062101, (1990).
Ermak, D.L.; Lange-R., Treatment of denser-than-air releases in an advection-diffusion model: Thermodynamic effects, 84th Annual meeting and exhibition of the Air and Waste Management Association (AWMA), Vancouver, Canada, 16–21 June (1991), Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA; Rep. No. UCRL-JC-106798, CONF-910659–12, (1991).
Matthias, C.S., Dispersion of dense cylindrical cloud in calm air, J. Hazard. Mater., 24 (1990) 39–65.
Bidokhti, A.A., A numerical model of heavy gas dispersion, Proceedings of the 8. Brazilian Meeting on Reactor Physics and Thermal Hydraulics, (1991), pp. 87–90. Rep. No. CONF-910983-, INIS-BR-2846.
Deaves, D.M.; Hall, R.C., The effects of sloping terrain on dense gas dispersion, J. Loss Prey. Process Ind. 3 (1990) 142–145.
Nikmo, J.; Kukkonen, J., Modelling of heavy gas cloud advection in complex terrain, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, (preprint 1991 ).
Webber, D.M.; Jones, S.J.; Martin, D., A model of the motion of a heavy gas cloud released on a uniform slope, J. Hazard. Mater., 33 (1993) 101–122.
Pape, R.; Nussey, C., A basic approach for the analysis of risk for toxic risks, The Assessment and Control of Major Hazards, I. Chem. Eng. Symposium, 22–24 April 1985.
Webber, D.; Brighton, P., A mathematical model of a spreading vaporising liquid pool, 3rd Symposium on Heavy Gases and Risk Assessment, Bonn, November 1984.
Shaw, P.; Briscoe, F., Evaporation from spill of hazardous liquids on land and water, UKAEA Rep. No. SRD R100, (1978).
Chay, H.R.; Reid, R.C., Spreading boiling model for instantaneous spills of liquified petroleum gas (LPG) on water, J. of Haz. Materials, 7 (1982) 19–35.
Hall, S.F., A simple homogeneous equilibrium critical discharge model applied to multi-component, two- phase systems - The computer programs CRITS and CRITTER, UKAEA Rep. No. SRD R127, (1978).
Cox, R.A.; Roe, D.R., A model of the dispersion of dense vapour clouds. 2nd International Symposion on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries, Heidelberg, (1977), p. 359-.
Niggli, S., DispTool - Part I: User Manual and Part II: Theory Manual, (1992). Available from Swiss Reinsurance Company, Risk Management Service Center, Mythenquai 50/60, Zürich, P.O. Box, CH-8022, Switzerland.
Schiegl, W.E.; and Schorling, M., TA Luft, Vorschriften and Erläuterungen zum Immissionschutz (Ecomed Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, 8910 Landsberg/Lech, BRD, (1986).
Schnatz, G.; Rohbock, E., Dispersion of Heavy Gases–Experiments and Models, VDI-Bericht, 558 (1986) 143–66.
Fryer, L.S.; Kayser, G.D., DENZ A computer program for the calculation of the dispersion of dense toxic or explosive gases in the atmosphere, UKAEA Rep. No. SRD R 152, July 1979.
McQuaid, J., Objectives and Design of the Phase I Heavy Gas Dispersion trials, J. Hazard. Mater., 22 (1985) 13.
Brighton, P.W.M.; Prince, A.J.; Webber, D.M., Determination of cloud area and path from visual and concentration records, J. Hazard. Mater., 11 (1985) 155–178.
Fryer, L.S.; Kayser, G.D., DENZ A computer program for the calculation of the dispersion of dense toxic or explosive gases in the atmosphere, UKAEA Rep. No. SRD R 152, July 1979.
Jagger, S.F., The application of the computer code DENZ, U.K. Atomic Energy Authority, Safety Reliability Directorate, SRD, Report No. SRD R 277, (1985).
Crabol, B.; L’Homme-V.; Roux-A., Interpretation of the Thomey Island Phase 1 Trials with the Box Model Cigale2. Symposium on Analysis and Interpretation of Results of the Thomey Island Trials, Sheffield, UK, 23 Sept. 1986, CEA Centre d’Etudes Nucleaires de Fontenay-aux-Roses (France ), Dept. d’Analyse de Sûreté, (1986).
Alp, E., COBRA: An LNG (liquefied natural gas) model. Proceedings of the Heavy Gas (LNG/LPG) Workshop, (1985), pp. 76–92. Rep. No. CONF-8501127, CE-03673, CSC-CE303673.
Alp, E.; Matthias,-C.S., COBRA. A heavy gas/liquid spill and dispersion modelling system. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, United Kingdom, 4 (3) (1991) 139–150.
Witlox, H.W.M.; Puttock, J.S.; Colenbrander, G.W., HEGADAS: Heavy Gas Dispersion Program, User’s Guide, Shell Research Ltd., Chester (England), (1988). Rep. No. EPASWDK89027A.
Marsden, A.; Guinnup, D., HEGADAS: Heavy Gas Dispersion Model (for Microcomputers), Model-Simulation. Rep. No. EPASWDK89027, (1989).
Singh, M.P.; Mohan, M.; Panwar, T.S.; Chopra, H.V., Estimation of vulnerable zones due to accidental release of toxic materials resulting in dense gas clouds, in Risk-Analysis, United-States, (1991).
Singh, M.P., Vulnerability analysis of airborne accidental release of toxic chemicals, in B.W. Gay, Jr. (ed.), EPA/AWMA International Symposium on Measurement of Toxic and Related Air Pollutants. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA, (1991); See also Rep. No. CONF-8907103-(1989), LA-I1728-C.
Havens, J.A., A Description and computational assessment of the “SIGMET LNG Vapor Dispersion Model”, J. of Haz. Materials, 6 (1982) 181–195.
Havens, J.A., A description and assessment of the SIGMET LNG vapor dispersion model, U.S. Coast Guard, Rep. No. CG-M-3–79, Feb. 1979.
Smith, T.B., Howard, S.M., Methodology for treating diffusivity, Final Report to Systems, Science and Software, LaJolla, CA, by Meteorology Research, Inc., Altadena, CA (MRI 72 FR-1030).
Havens, J., A dispersion model for elevated dense gas jet chemical releases, Volume II. User’s guide, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Office Air Quality Planning Standards, Rep. No. EPA, EPA–450/4–88–006b, (1988). See also Volume 1, P888–202387.
Guinnup, D., Dispersion Model for Elevated Dense Gas Jet Chemical Releases (Ooms/DEGADIS) (for Microcomputers), Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, (1988). Rep. No. EPASWDK88048 (Software).
Havens, J.A.; Spicer-T.O., Development of an Atmospheric Dispersion Model for Heavier-Than-Air Gas Mixtures, Volume 1. Final rept. Sep 80-May 85 (AD-A171 522), Arkansas Univ., Fayetteville, Dept. of Chemical Engineering. Rep. No. USCGD2285.
Havens, J.A.; Spicer, T.O., Development of an Atmospheric Dispersion Model for Heavier-Than-Air Gas Mixtures, Volume 2 (AD-A171 523), Laboratory Calm Air Heavy Gas Dispersion Experiments, Dept. of Chemical. Engineering, Arkansas Univ., Fayetteville. Final report, Sept. 80-May 85.
Havens, J.A.; Spicer, T.O., Development of an Atmospheric Dispersion Model for Heavier-Than-Air Gas Mixtures, Volume 3, DEGADIS User’s Manual, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Arkansas Univ., Fayetteville, Final report, Sept. 80-May 85 (AD-A171 524).
Spicer, T.; Havens, J. A., User’s guide for the DEGADIS 2.1 dense gas dispersion model, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Air Qual. Plann. Stand., EPA, Rep. No. EPA–450/4–89–019, (1989).
Hofmann, J.E., Dense gas dispersion modeling on the IBM-PC, in Proc. - APCA Annu. Meet., 81st(8), Paper 88/146. 7, (1988).
Wheatley, C.J.; A user’s guide to TRAUMA - A computer code for assessing the consequences of accidental two-phase releases of NH3 into moist air, UKAEA Rep. No. SRD/HSE R394, London, (1987).
LNG Vapor Dispersion Prediction with the DEGADIS Dense Gas Dispersion Model (for Microcomputers). Model-Simulation. Gas Research Inst., Chicago, IL. Rep. No. GRISWDK91002(1991).
Havens, J.A.; Spicer, T.O., LNG Vapor Dispersion Prediction with the DEGADIS Dense Gas Dispersion Model, Topical Report, April 1988 - July 1990, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Arkansas Univ., Fayetteville. Rep. No. GRI890242, GRISWDK91002A.
Spicer, T.O.; Havens, J.A., Development of Vapor Dispersion Models for Nonneutrally Buoyant Gas Mixtures Analysis of USAF/N204 Test Data, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Arkansas Univ., Fayetteville, Final report, 1 Feb. - 31 Jul. 85, (1986). Rep. No. AFESCESLTR8624.
Ermak, D.L., Denser-Than-Air Dispersion Modeling in the Atmosphere, JANNAF Safety and Environmental Protection Meeting, Livermore, CA, USA, 8th March 1983, Rep. No. UCRL88782, CONF8303213.
Morgan, D.L.; Morris-L.K.; Ermak-D.L., SLAB: A Time-Dependent Computer Model for the Dispersion of Heavy Gases Released in the Atmosphere. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1983). Rep. No. UCRL53383.
Chan, S.T., FEM3: A Finite-Element Model for the Simulation of Heavy-Gas Dispersion and Incompressible Flow, User’s Manual. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1983). Rep. No. UCRL53397.
Chan, S.T., FEM3; Heavy Gas Dispersion Incompressible Flow, Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. (1985). Rep. No: ESTSC-000198CY00100; NESC-9903, (Software).
Rodean, H.C.; Chan, S.T., Generalized phase-change submodels in the FEM3 model for gas dispersion, Rep. No. UCID-20817, Energy Res. Abstr. 11(18), Abstr. No. 41571, (1986).
Ermak, D.L.; Chan-S.T., FEM3 Dispersion Calculations: Evaluation of Turbulence Submodel. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1986). Rep. No. UC1D20933.
Gresho P.M.; Chan, S.T.; Upson, C.D.; Lee R.L., A modified finite element method for solving the time-dependent, incompressible Navier-Stokes equations: Part 1, Theory; Part 2, Applications, (1984).
Chan, S.T., FEM3A: A Finite Element Model for the Simulation of Gas Transport and Dispersion: User’s Manual. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1988). Rep. No. UCRL21043.
Chan, S.T.; Gresho-P.M., Ensuring mass conversion in a heavy-gas dispersion model using the generalized anelastic equations. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1991). American Institute of Astronautics and Aeronautics/American Society of Mechanical Engineers (AIAA/ASME) National Fluid Dynamics Congress, Los Angeles, CA, 15–18 Jun 1992. Rep. No. UCRL-JC-107535; CONF-920605–3.
ARCHIE, Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis Procedures, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (1987).
Raj, P.K.; Morris, J.A., Source Characterization and Heavy Gas Dispersion Models for Reactive Chemicals, Vol. I, (1987). Rep. AD-A200121, AFGL-TR-88–0003 (I) From: Gov. Rep. Announce. Index (U.S.) (1989), 89(5), Abstr. No. 911,263 (1987). See also volume 2, AD-A192 209.
Me, G.; Springer, C., The Evaporation and Dispersion of Hydrazine Propellant From Ground Spills, CEEDO-TR-78–30, AD A059407, (1978).
Meroney, R.N., Transient characteristics of dense gas dispersion. Part I: a depth-averaged numerical model, J. Hazard. Mater., 9 (2), (1984) 139–57.
Meroney, R.N., Transient characteristics of dense gas dispersion. Part II: numerical experiments on dense cloud physics, J. Hazard. Mater., 9 (2), (1984) 159–70.
Wheatley, C.J.; Webber, D.M., Aspects of the dispersion of denser-than-air vapours relevant to gas cloud explosions, C.mmission of the European Communities, Brussels. Rep. No. EUR 9592, (1984).
Davies, D.M., Development and application of heavy gas dispersion models of varying complexity, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 427–438.
Schatzmann, M., Experimental determination of the effect of building construction on the spread of heavy gases. Final report. Rep.No. BMFT 13RG8603, (1990).
Schatzmann, M.; Marotzke, K., Dispersion modeling within risk assessment studies, NATO Challenges Mod. Soc., 15 (Air Pollut. Model. Its Appl. 8), (1991), pp. 639–42.
Ermak, D.L., Dense-gas dispersion advection-diffusion model. JANNAF Safety and Environmental Subcommittee meeting, Monterey, CA (United States), 10–14 Aug. 1992, Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. Rep. No. UCRLJC109697, CONF92081122.
Gudiksen, P.H.; Edwards, L.L.; Ermak, D.L.; Leone, J.M., LLNL atmospheric dispersion model developments in support of emergency response, Topical Meeting on Emergency Preparedness and Response (3rd), Chicago, IL (USA), 16–19 Apr. (1991). Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. Rep. No. UCRLJC106282, CONF9104342.
Ermak, D.L., User’s manuai for SLAB: An atmospheric dispersion model for denser-than-air-releases. Lawrence Livermore National Lab, CA, (1990). Rep. No. UCRL-MA-105607.
Puttock, J.S., Comparison of Thomey Island data with predictions of HEGABOX/HEGADAS, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 439–455.
Rion, Y., Comparison between MERCURE-GL code calculations, wind tunnel measurements and Thomey Island field trials, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 247–265.
Nikmo, J.; Kukkonen, J., Modelling heavy gas cloud advection in complex terrain, in M. Kulmala, and J. Kukkonen (eds.), Workshop on the Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, (1990), pp. 36–41. Rep. No. CONF-9008169-, LTKK-EN-D19.
Kukkonen, J.; Nikmo, J., Modeling heavy gas cloud transport in sloping terrain, J. Hazard. Mater., 31 (2), (1992) 155–76.
Webber, D.M.; Kukkonen, J.S., Modelling two-phase jets for hazard analysis, J. Hazard. Mater., 23 (1990) 167–182.
Kukkonen, J., Modelling source terms for the atmospheric dispersion of hazardous substances, in Commentationes Physico Mathematicae Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Finland, 115 (1990)1–111.
Grand, D.; Villand, M.; Silveira, A., Numerical simulation of the dispersion of pollutants with the three-dimensional code Trio, in Advanced Modelling and Computer Codes for Calculating local-Scale and Meso-Scale Atmospheric Dispersion of Radionuclides and their Applications, Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. Paris (France), (1991).
Sedefian, L.; Benett, E., A comparison of turbulence classification schemes, Atmos. Environ., 14 (1980) 741–750.
Chandhry, F.H.; Meroney, R.N., A laboratory study of diffusion in a stably stratified flow, Atm. Env., 74 (1973) 443.
Martin, J.E., The correlation of wind tunnel and field measurements of gas diffusion using Kr-85 as tracer, Ph.D. Thesis, MMPP 272, University of Michigan, (1965).
Ysiumov, N.; Jondali, T.; Davenport, A.G., Model studies and the prediction of full-scale levels of stack gas concentration, J. of APCA, 26 (10), (1976) 956.
Kothari, K.M.; Meroney, R.N.; Bouwmeester, R.J., An algorithm to estimate field concentrations in the wake of power plant complexes under nonsteady meteorological conditions from wind-tunnel experiments, J. Applied Meteorology, 20 (8), (1981) 934–943.
Yingst, J.C.; Swanson, R.N.; Mooney, M.L., et al., Review of five wind-tunnel modeling results in complex terrain, 5th Symp. on Turbulence, Diffusion, and Air Pollution, Atlanta, Georgia, (1981), pp. 148.
Weil, J.C.; Cermak, J.E.; Petersen, R.L., Plume dispersion about the windward side of a hill at short range: Wind tunnel versus measurement, 5th Symp. on Turbulence, Diffusion, and Air Pollution, Atlanta, Georgia, (1981), pp. 159.
Andreiev, G.; Neff, D.E.; Meroney, R.N., Heat Transfer Effects during Cold Dense Gas Dispersion. Final report, Aug. 82 - Sept. 1983, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Dept. of Civil Engineering; Rep. No. CER8384GADENRNM3, GRI830022.
Hall, D.J.; Hollis, E.J.; Ishag, H., Wind Tunnel Model of the Portion Dense Gas Spill Field Trials, Warren Spring Lab., Stevenage, England, (1982). Rep. No. LR394AP, ISBN0856242764.
Hall, D.J.; Waters, R.A., Wind tunnel model comparisons with the Thorney Island dense gas release fiels trials, J. Hazard. Mater., 11 (1985) 209–235.
Van Heugten, W.H.H.; Duijm, N.J., Some findings based on wind tunnel simulation and model calculations of Thorney Island trials No. 008, J. Hazard. Mater., 11 (1985) 409–416.
Baynes, C.J., Calculation of near-field concentrations of hydrogen sulphide, (1985). Rep. No. INFO-0163.
Krogstad, P.A.; Pettersen, R.M., Windtunnel modelling of a release of a heavy gas near a building, Atmos. Environ., 20 (5), (1986) 867–78.
Britter, R.E., Fluid modeling of dense gas dispersion over a ramp, J. Hazard. Mater., 18 (1988) 37–67.
Hall, D.J.; Waters, R.A., Investigation of Two Features of Continuously Released Heavy Gas Plumes. Warren Spring Lab., Stevenage, England, (1989). Rep. No. LR707PAM, ISBN0856245658.
Neff, D.E., Physical modeling of heavy plume dispersion. Ph.D. Thesis (1989). Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO (USA). Availability: University Microfilms, PO Box 1764, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, Order No. 90–00, 477.
Murphy, M.C.; Heidom, K.C.; Irwin, P.A., Scale model studies and development of prediction procedures for heavy gas dispersion in complex terrain, in Proceedings of the Technology Transfer Conference, Toronto, ON. Session A: Air quality research, (1988), pp. 109–147. Rep. No. CONF-88 1 1 29 1-, MICROLOG-89–02641.
Murphy, M.C.; Heidom, K.C.; Irwin, P.A.; Davies, A.E., Scale model studies of heavy gas dispersion, in Proceedings of the Air and Waste Management Assoc., 82nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition (Abstracts), Technical Rep. No. 89–55.1., (1989), pp. 57. Rep. No. CONF-890692-.
Murphy, M.C.; Heidorn, K.C.; Irwin, P.A.; Davies, A.E., Heavy gas dispersion in terrain with obstacles. Proceedings of the sixth technical seminar on chemical spills, (1989), pp. 19–43. Rep. No. CONF8906284-, MICROLOG-89–04698, CONF-8906284-.
Krogstad, P.A.; Jacobsen, 0., Dispersion of heavy gases, in D.N. Cheremisinoff, Encyclopedia of Environmental Control Technology, New Jersey Inst. of Tech., Newark, NJ, USA, Gulf Publishing Company, (1989), pp. 631–678.
Gudivaka, V.; Kumar, A., An evaluation of four box models for instantaneous dense-gas releases, J. Hazard. Mater., 25 (1990) 237–255.
Shin, S.H.; Meroney, R.N.; Neff, D.E., LNG Vapor Barrier and Obstacle Evaluation: Wind-Tunnel Simulation of 1987 Falcon Spill Series, Final Report, July 1987 - February 1991, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins.
Heidom, K.C.; Murphy, M.C.; Irwin, P.A., Effects of obstacles on the spread of a heavy gas–Wind tunnel simulations, J. Hazard. Mater., 30 (1992) 151–194.
Riethmuller-M.L., Critical Confrontation of Standard and More Sophisticated Methods for Modelling the Dispersion in Air of Heavy Gas Clouds: Evaluation and Illustration of the Intrinsic Limitations of both Categories, Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg, Final report, (1983). Rep. No. EUR8423.
Fox, D.G., Uncertainty in air quality modelling, Bull Am. Meteorol. Soc., 65 (1984) 27–36.
Ermak, D.L., Field validation of dispersion models for dense-gas releases, NATO Challenges Mod. Soc., 13 (Air Pollut. Model. Its Appl. 7), (1989), pp. 383–92.
Hanna, R.S.; Chang, J.C., Uncertainties in Hazardous Gas Model Predictions, Int. Conf. and Workshop on Modelling and Mitigating the Consequences of Accidental Releases of Hazardous Materials, New-Orleans, Louisiana, May 20–24, (1991).
Hanna, S.R.; Strimaitis, D.G.; Chang, J.C., Evaluation of 14 hazardous gas models with ammonia and hydrogen fluoride field data. To appear in J. Hazard. Mat. (1992-…)
Koopman, R.P.; Ermak-D.L.; Chan-S.T., Review of Recent Work in Atmospheric Dispersion of Large Spills, Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1988). Rep. No. UCRL97377, CONF88051035.
Ermak, D.L.; Merry-M., Methodology for Evaluating Heavy Gas Dispersion Models. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, Final report Nov 85-Feb 1988. Rep. No. AFESCESLTR8837 (1989).
Smith, D.G., Emergency response/contingency planning considerations, in R.V. Portelli (ed.), Proceedings of the Heavy Gas (LNG/LPG) Workshop, (1985), pp. 216–223. Rep.No. CONF-8501127-, CE-03673, CSC-CE03673.
Davies, M.E.; Inman, P.N., A statistical examination of wind tunnel modelling of the Thorney Island trials, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 149–172.
Hall, D.J., Further experiments on a model of an escape of heavy gas, Warren Spring Laboratory, Stevenage, Herts, (1979). Rep. No. LR 312 (AP).
Puttock, J.S.; Blackmore, D.R.; Coelnbrander, G.W., Field Experiments on Dense Gas Dispersion, in R.E. Britter and R.F. Griffifths (eds.), Dense Gas Dispersion, Chemical Engineering Monographs 16, Elsevier, (1982).
Experiments with Chlorine“: Report published by the Directorate General of Labour of the Ministery of Social Affairs, Voorburg, The Netherlands, (1975).
Picknett, R.G., Dispersion of dense gas puffs released in the atmosphere at ground level, Atm. Env., 15 (1981) 509–525.
Koopman, R.P.; Cederwall, R.T.; Ermak, D.L., et al., Analysis of Burro series 40-m3 LNG spill experiments, J. Hazard. Mater., 6 (1982) 43–83.
Ermak, D.L.; Chan, S.T.; Morgan, D.L.; Morris, L.K., A comparison of dense gas dispersion model simulations with Burro series LNG spill test results, J. Hazard. Mater., 6 (1–2), 129–60 (1982).
McQuaid, J., Observation on the current status of field experimentation on heavy gas dispersion, in Ooms and Tennekes (eds.), Atmospheric Dispersion of Heavy Gases and Small Particles, Springer Verlag, (1984), pp. 241–267.
Havens, J.A.; Spicer, T.O., Development of an atmospheric gas model for heavier-than-air gas mixtures. U.S. Dept. of Transport, U.S. Coast Guard, (1985). Rep. No.CG-D-23–85.
Colenbrander, G.W.; Puttock, J.S., Maplin Sands experiments 1980: Interpretation and modelling of liquified gas spills into the sea, in Ooms and Tennekes (eds.), Atmospheric Dispersion of Heavy Gases and Small Particles, Springer Verlag, (1984), pp. 277–295.
Hall, D.J., Further experiments on a model of an escape of heavy gas, Warren Spring Laboratory, (1977). Rep. CR 1314 (AP).
Colenbrander, G.W., A mathematical model for the transition behavior of dense vapor clouds, in 3rd Proc. Int. Symp. Loss Prevention and Safety pronmotion in the Process Industries, Basel, (1980).
Ermak, D.L; Nyholm, R.A.; Lange, R., ATMAS: A three-dimensional atmospheric transport model to treat multiple area sources, Lawrence Livermore Nat. Lab., Livermore, CA, (1978). Rep. No. UCRL-52603.
Morgan, D.L.; Kansa, E.J.; Morris, L.K., Simulations and Studies of Heavy-Gas Dispersion Using the SLAB Model. American Meteorological Society symposium on turbulence and diffusion, Boston, MA, USA, 22 March 1983. Rep. No. UCRL88009, CONF83030711, (1983).
Ermak, D.L., LNG Vapor-Dispersion Research at LLNL: Remaining Questions. Gas Research Institute workshop on vapor dispersion, Cambridge, MA, USA, 23 Mar 1982. Rep. No. UCRL87668, CONF8203781.
Havens, J.A.; Spicer, T.O., Further analysis of catastrophic LNG spill vapor dispersion, in S. Hartwig (ed.), Heavy Gas Risk Assessessment, II., Proc. Symp., 2nd, Meeting ( 1982 ), Reidel, Dordrecht, Netherlands, (1983), pp. 181–210.
Chan, S.T.; Rodean, H.C.; Ermak, D.L., Numerical simulations of atmospheric releases of heavy gases over variable terrain. 13th International Technical Meeting on Air Pollution Modeling and its Application, Toulon, France, 14 Sept. (1982). Rep. No. UCRL87256, CONF8209362.
Chan, S.T.; Ermak, D.L., Recent results in simulating LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) vapor dispersion over variable terrain, Revision 1, International Union of Theoritical and Applied Mechanics, Symposium on Atmospheric Dispertion of Heavy Gases and Small Particles, Delft, Netherlands, 28 Aug. (1983). Rep. No. UCRL88495REV1, CONF8308024-Revl.
Koopman, R.P.; McRae, T.G.; Goldwire, H.C.; Ermak, D.L.; Kansa, E.J., Results of recent large-scale NH3 and N2O4 dispersion experiments. Symposium on Heavy Gases and Risk Assessment, Bonn, F.R. Germany, 12 Nov. (1984).
McRae, T.G., Analysis and Model/Data Comparisons of Large-Scale Releases of Nitrogen Tetroxide. (1985). Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. Rep. No. UCID20388.
Hartwig, S.; Schnatz, G.; Heudorfer, W., Improved understanding of heavy gas dispersion and its modeling, Atmos. Dispersion Heavy Gases Small Particles, Symp., Meeting Date 1983, 139–55. Edited by: Ooms, Gijsbert; Tennekes, Hendrik. Springer: Berlin, Fed. Rep. Ger., (1984).
Hall, D.J.; Waters, R.A., Wind Tunnel Model Comparisons with the Thomey Island Dense Gas Release Field Trials, Air Pollution Abstracts, Warren Spring Lab., Stevenage, England, (1984). Rep. No. LR489APM, ISBN0856243434.
Morgan, D.L.; Kansa, E.J.; Morris, L.K., Simulations and parameter-variation studies of heavy-gas dispersion using the SLAB Model, International Union of Theoritical and Applied Mechanics Symposium on Atmospheric Disperation of Heavy Gases and Small Particles, Delft, Netherlands, 28 August, (1983). Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA; Rep. No. UCRL90150, CONF8308021Sum.
Morgan, D.L.; Kansa, E.J.; Mor is, L.K., Simulations and parameter variation studies of heavy-gas dispersion using the SLAB model. International Union of Theoritical and Applied Mechanics Symposium on Atmospheric Disperation of Heavy Gases and Small Particles, Delft, Netherlands, 28 August, (1983). Rep. No. UCRL88516Rev1, CONF8308021Rev1.
Morgan, D.L.; Kansa, E.J.; Morris, L.K., Simulations and parameter variation studies of heavy gas dispersion using the SLAB model, Condensed. International Union of Theoritical and Applied Mechanics Symposium on Atmospheric Disperation of Heavy Gases and Small Particles, Delft, Netherlands, 28 August (1983), Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. Rep. No. UCRL90150, CONF8308021 Sum.
Morgan, D.L., Dispersion Phenomenology of LNG Vapor in the Burro and Coyote LNG Spill Experiments, Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1984). Rep. No. UCRL91741, CONF84120119.
Morgan, D.L.; Moms, L.K.; Chan, S.T.; Ennak, D.L.; McRae, T.G., Phenomenology and Modeling of Liquefied Natural Gas Vapor Dispersion, Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1984). Rep. No. UCRL53581.
Havens, J.A.; Schreurs-P.J., Evaluation of 3-D Hydrodynamic Computer Models for Prediction of LNG Vapor Dispersion in the Atmosphere, Annual Report PB85–1 1 8503, Mar 83 - Feb 84, Dept. of Chemical Engineering Arkansas Univ., Fayetteville, (1984).
Havens, J.A.; Spicer, T.O.; Schreurs-P.J., Evaluation of 3-D Hydrodynamic Computer Models for Prediction of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) Vapor Dispersion in the Atmosphere, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Arkansas Univ., Fayetteville, Final Report March 1983 - April (1987).
Jensen, N.O.; Mikkelsen, T., Entrainment through the top of a heavy gas cloud, numerical treatment, NATO Challenges Mod. Soc., 5 (Air Pollut. Model. Its Appl. ), (1984), pp. 343–51.
Gotaas, Y., Heavy gas dispersion and environmental conditions as revealed by the Thomey Island experiments, J. Hazard. Mater., 11 (1985) 399–408.
Puttock, J.S.; Colenbrander, G.W., Dense gas dispersion: Experimental research, in R.V. Portelli (ed.), Proceedings of the heavy gas (LNG/LPG) workshop, (1985), pp. 32–50. Rep. No. CONF-8501127-, CE-03673, CSC-CE303673.
Spicer, T.O.; Havens, J.A., Modeling the phase I Thomey Island experiments, J. Hazard. Mater., 11 (1985) 237–260.
Chan, S. T.; Ermak, D.L., Further Assessment of FEM3: A Numerical Model for the Dispersion of Heavy Gases over Complex Terrain, JANNAF Safety and Environmental Protection Subcommittee meeting, Monterey, CA, USA, 4 Nov. (1985). Rep. No. UCRL92497, CONF85111103.
Havens, J.A.; Schreurs-P.J., Evaluation of 3-D Hydrodynamic Computer Models for Prediction of LNG Vapor Dispersion in the Atmosphere, Annual Rep. March 1984 - February 1985, Arkansas University, Fayetteville.
Koopman, R.P., Atmospheric Dispersion of Large Scale Spills, AIChE Winter Annual Meeting, Miami, FL, USA, 2 Nov. (1986). Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. Rep. No. UCRL95091, CONF8611463.
Chan, S.T.; Ermak, D.L., Further Assessment of FEM3: A Numerical Model for the Dispersion of Heavy Gases over Complex Terrain, Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA, (1985).
Ermak, D.L.; Chan, S.T., Institute of Mathematics and its Applications, Conference on stably stratified flows and dense gas dispersion, Chester, UK, April 9, (1986).
Davies, M.E.; Inman-P.N., Wind Tunnel Modelling of the Thomey Island Heavy Gas Dispersion Trials, British Maritime Technology Ltd., Teddington, England, Applied Fluid Mechanics Div., Final Rep. January 1985 - July 1986. Rep. No. BMT25003, GRI860264.
Meroney, R.N., Guideline for Fluid Modeling of Liquefied Natural Gas Cloud Dispersion, Volume 2, Technical Support Document, Final report (July 1985). See also Volume I: Instruction Guide for the fluid model prediction of liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage and transportation hazards, (1986). Rep. No. CER8485RNM50B, GRI8501022.
Van Ulden, A.P., The heavy gas mixing process in still air at Thomey Island and in the laboratory, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 411–425.
Comwell, J.B.; Pfenning, D.B., Comparison of Thorney Island data with heavy gas dispersion models, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 315–37.
Eidsvik, K.J., Dispersion of Heavy gas Cloud in the Atmosphere, Rep. NILU OR 32/78, Norvegian Institute of Air Research, 1978. (see also Eidsvik, K.J., A model for heavy gas dispersion in the atmosphere, Atmos. Environ., 14 (1978) 769–777 ).
Brighton, P.W.M., A user’s critique of the Thorney Island dataset, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 457–500.
Crabol, B.; Roux, A., Interpretation of the Thomey Island Phase 1 Trials with the Box Model Cigale2, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987).
Spicer, T.O.; Havens, J.A., Field test validation of the DEGADIS model, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 231245.
Chan, S.T.; Ermak, D.L.; Morris, L.K., FEM3 model simulations of selected Thomey Island phase I trials, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 267–292.
Carpenter, R.J.; Cleaver, R.P.; Waite, P.J.; English, M.A., The calibration of a simple model for dense gas dispersion using the Thomey Island Phase I trials data, J. Hazard. Mater., 16, 293–313 (1987).
Bradley, C.I.; Carpenter, R.J.; Waite, P.J.; Ramsey, C.G.; English, M.A., Recent development of a simple box-type model for dens vapour cloud dispersion, in D. Reidel (ed.), Proc. Symposium on Heavy Gases and Risk Analysis, May 25–26, 1982, Battelle Institute, Frankfurt, (1983).
Deaver, D.M., Development and application of heavy gas dispersion models of varying complexity, J. Hazard. Mater., 16 (1987) 427–38.
Britter, R.E., Assessment of the Use of Cold Gas in a Windtunnel to Investigate the Influence of Thermal Effects on the Dispersion of LNG Vapour Clouds, Cambridge Univ., England, (1987). Rep. No. CUEDAAEROTR14.
Chikhliwala, E.D.; Oliver,-M.; Shinde, A.N., Proceedings Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, USA, (1987), pp. 1–26. Rep. No. CONF-870695-.
Chan, S.T., Numerical simulation of the mitigating effects of an LNG vapor fence, Joint Army Navy NASA Air Force Safety and Environmental Protection Conference, 18–22 June 1990, Livermore, CA (USA ), (1990).
Chan, S.T., Numerical simulations of LNG vapor dispersion from a fenced storage area, J. Hazard. Mater., 30 (1992) 195–224.
Britter, R.E., The ground level extent of a negatively buoyant plume in a turbulent bondary layer, Atm. Env. 14 (1980) 779.
Hanna, S.R.; Strimaitis, D.G.; Chang, J.C., Evaluation of fourteen hazardous gas models with ammonia and hydrogen field data, J. Hazard. Mater., 26 (1991) 127–158.
Influence of Short-Term Concentration Peaks on Exposure Risks in the Vicinity of an Episodic Release of Hydrogen Sulphide, Monserco Ltd., Montreal, Quebec, (1981).
Probabilistic Consequence Assessment of Hydrogen Sulphide Releases from a Heavy Water Plant, Scope Determination, Atomic Energy Control Board, Ottawa, Ontario, (1983). Rep. No. INFO01021.
Abbott, M.L., Toxic vapor cloud impacts from accidental releases of anhydrous ammonia and nitrogen dioxide at the ICPP NO Abatement Facility, EG and G Idaho, Inc., Idaho Falls, (1992).
Raj, P.K., Hydrogen Fluoride and Fluorine Dispersion Models Integration Into the Air Force Dispersion Assessment Model, Technology and Management Systems, Inc., Burlington, MA; Volume 1, Final report, 1 March 89–30 Nov. (1990). Rep. No. GLTR900321VOL1.
Rasmussen, K., European Community Documentation Centre on Industrial Risk, Toxicol. Environ. Chem., 25 (1990) 213–219.
Rasmussen, K.; Gow, H.B.F., The importance of information on industrial risk: A new documentation center, J. Hazardous Materials 30 (1992) 355–359.
Drogaris, G., Major Accident Reporting System: Lessons learned from Accidents, Notified EUR 13385 EN, Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg, (1991).
Flyvholm, M.-A.; Andersen, P.; Beck, I.D.; Brandorff, N.P., PROBAS: The Danish Product Register Data Base - A national register of chemical substances and products.
Papazoglou, I.A.; Christou, M.; Nivolianitou, Z.; Aneziris, O., On the Management of Severe Chemical Accidents, DECARA: A computer code for consequences analysis in chemical installations, Case study: Ammonia plant, J. Hazard. Mater., 31 (1992) 135–153.
TNO 1980, 1992. Methods for the calculation of physical effects resulting from releases of hazardous materials (liquids and Gases), TNO - The Netherlands Organization of Applied Scientific Research, Directorate-General of Labour of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, Postbox 90804, 2509 LV, The Hague, Rep. No. CPR I4E (1992), Second Edition, (ISSN 0921–9633/2.10.014/9203).
Stewart, A.M.; Van Aerde, M.; Shortreed, J.H., Enhancements and updates to the RISKMOD risk analysis model, J. Hazard. Mater., 25 (1990) 107–119.
Raj, P.K.; Kalelkar, A.S., Assessment Models in Support of the Hazard Assessment Handbook (CG-446–3, Technical support to the U.S. Coast Guard, Washington DC, 20590, (Jan. 1974).
ALPE, Environmental Software Product Review, J. of Am. Institute of Plant Managers–Facility Management, Operations Engineering, 16 (4), (1989), pp. 20–23.
Hanna, S.; Drivas, P., Guidelines for Use of Vapor Cloud Dispersion Models, Report to the center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), (1987). AIChE, 345 E, 47th Street, New York 100017.
Raj, K.; Morris, J.A., Computerized Spill Hazard Evaluation Models, J. Hazard. Mater., 25 (1990) 77–92.
Potts, R., Hazard Assessment Computer System - HACS, User Operation Manual, Vol. 2, Report to the U.S. Coast Guard, Washington DC, 20590, (Sept. 1981).
Raj, P.K.; Morris, J.A., Source Characterization and Heavy Gas Dispersion Models for Reactive Chemicals, Vol. 1, Rep. to the U.S. Air Force, Air Force System Command, Hanscom AFB, MA 01731, (Dec. 1987).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gheorghe, A.V., Nicolet-Monnier, M. (1995). Modeling of Dense Gas Dispersion. In: Integrated Regional Risk Assessment, Vol. II. Environmental Science and Technology Library, vol 4. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0481-6_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0481-6_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-4614-7
Online ISBN: 978-94-017-0481-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive