Abstract
Desertification is arguably Africa’s main environmental challenge. In fact, it has provided such a formidable challenge that Africa has not been able to meet it alone. Since the 1970s, numerous international efforts have been devoted to designing responses to this environmental problem. This chapter traces the successes and failures of these international activities.
Dr. Elisabeth Corell is a Wallenberg Fellow in Environment and Sustainability at the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, USA. In 1999, she completed her PhD dissertation The Negotiable Desert: Expert Knowledge in the Negotiations of the Convention to Combat Desertificationat Linköping University, Sweden. For this research she attended all CCD negotiating sessions from 1993 to 1997. Her field is international relations and her research interests include the relationship between science and politics in international environmental decision-making, expert knowledge, sustainable development in developing countries, and the translation of global agreements to local action.
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Dr. Elisabeth Corell is a Wallenberg Fellow in Environment and Sustainability at the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, USA. In 1999, she completed her PhD dissertation The Negotiable Desert: Expert Knowledge in the Negotiations of the Convention to Combat Desertificationat Linköping University, Sweden. For this research she attended all CCD negotiating sessions from 1993 to 1997. Her field is international relations and her research interests include the relationship between science and politics in international environmental decision-making, expert knowledge, sustainable development in developing countries, and the translation of global agreements to local action.
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa: Text with Annexes (Nairobi: UNEP, 1994), hereinafter eferred to here as the CCD.
CCD, Article 1(a).
F. Cardy (1997), “Foreword”, pp. v–vi in N. J. Middleton and D. S. G. Thomas (eds),World Atlas of Desertification (2nd ed.), (London: Arnold Publishers and UNEP).
M. K. Tolba, (1992), “Preface”, p. iv in Middleton & Thomas (1992), World Atlas of Desertification.
F. Cardy, (1993), “Global Programme of Action!”, 17:1/2 Ecoforum 22–23;
F. Cardy (1993), Desertification — A Fresh Approach, (undated paper provided at the CCD negotiations, May 1993).
E. Dowdeswell, (1997), “Preface”, p. iv in Middleton and Thomas, World Atlas of Desertification.
Tolba, M. K., “Preface”, p. iv in Middleton and Thomas, World Atlas of Desertification, 1992.
S. Batterbury, S. and A. Warren (2000), “Desertification”, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Preamble, paragraph 6.
On natural causes of desertification see, for instance, A. H. Bakhit (1993), “Desertification: Reconciling Intellectual Conceptualization and Intervention Effort”, 31:3 GeoJournal, 33–40; Helldén, “Desertification — Time for an assessment?”, at 372–383; and Ahlcrona, The Impact of Climate and Man on Land Transformation in Central Sudan.
R. C. Balling (1993), “Interrelationships between the Global Climate System, Drought and Desertification, Including the Impact of Desertification on Climate Change and Global Warming”, (paper presented at the CCD negotiations, May 1993).
C. Toulmin (1993), Combating Desertification: Setting the Agenda for a Global Convention (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, paper no.42) at 6.
Ibid at 7, Bakhit, (1993).
See, for example, Balling (1993); F. K. Hare (1993), Climate Variations, Drought and Desertification (Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, no. 653). If climate change does lead to changed precipitation patterns and surface and water temperatures, then this could have important implications for dryland degradation.
See, for instance, A. Grainger (1990), The Threatening Desert: Controlling Desertification (London: Earthscan Publications);
see also D. S. G. Thomas and N. J. Middleton (1994), Desertification: Exploding the Myth (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons).
For an elaboration of the importance of human activities, see H. E. Dregne, Desertification of Arid Lands; and R. D. Graetz (1991), “Desertification: a Tale of Two Feedbacks”, in H. A. Mooney, E. Medina, D. W. Schindler, E. D. Schultze and B. H. Walker (eds.), (1991), Ecosystem Experiments (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, SCOPE no. 45).
Adapted from Thomas and Middleton (1994) at 85.
CCD, preamble paras. 7 and 9.
M. Kassas, Y. J. Ahmad and B. Rozanov (1991), “Desertification and Drought: An Ecological and Economic Analysis” 20 Desertification Control Bulletin 19–29.
M. K. Tolba, “Preface” at iv in Middleton and Thomas (1992).
M. Kassas et al. (1991). For further detail about the implications of land management, water resource use, population growth and other factors on food security, see WCED (1987), Food 2000: Global Policies for Sustainable Agriculture (London: Zed Books).
Mainguet, Desertification, pp. 6–15.
P. Blaikie and H. Brookfield, (1987), “Colonialism, Development and Degradation” at 100–121 in P. Blaikie and H. Brookfield, Land Degradation and Society (London: Routledge).
A. Warren (1995), “Changing Understandings of African Pastoralism and the Nature of Environmental Paradigms”, 20:2 Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 193–203.
E. Corell (1999), The Negotiable Desert: Expert Knowledge in the Negotiations of the Convention to Combat Desertification. (Linköping, Sweden: PhD Dissertation, Linköping Studies in Arts and Science) 53–62. This review covers the definitions used in the international context, such as in multilateral negotiations or in the work of international or intergovernmental expert groups, and does not survey the over a hundred scientific definitions of desertification.
Article 1(a).
Corell (1999).
A. Warren, A (1993), “Desertification as a Global Environmental Issue”, (1993) 31:1 GeoJournal 11–14.
Toulmin (1993) at 2.
O. Greene (1996) “The Development and Implementation of International Environmental Regimes” at 280–312 in R. Blackmore and A. Reddish (eds.) (1996), Global Environmental Issues (London: Hodder & Stoughton);
M. Simons (1994), “Nations Sign Pact to Stop Desert Growth: Accord Aims to Save Land for Agriculture” (1994) The New York Times at 4.
H.E. Dregne, “Reflections on the PACD” (unpublished paper).
Graetz (1991), “Desertification: a Tale of Two Feedbacks”, in Mooney et al. (1991) at 60.
See, for instance, Thomas and Middleton (1994) at 99–127; and A. Warren and C. Agnew (1988), An Assessment of Desertification and Land Degradation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas (London: International Institute for Environment and Development Drylands Paper no. 2). It is importantto note that those who discuss a desertification “myth” do not question whether desertification occurs, but rather they question the inflated image of the problem that has been conveyed to the international public and decision-makers.
P. Harrison (1992), The Third Revolution: Population, Environment and a Sustainable World (London: Penguin Books) at 117.
P. Brinck (1976), “Preface”, at 7–10 in A. Rapp, H. N. Le Houérou and B. Lundholm (eds.), Can Desert Encroachment be Stopped? A Study with Emphasis on Africa (Stockholm: Swedish Natural Science Research Council and United Nations Environment Programme);
R. S. Odingo (1990), “Review of UNEP’s Definition of Desertification and its Programmatic Implications” at 7–44 in R. S. Odingo (ed.) (1990), Desertification Revisited: Proceedings of an Ad Hoc Consultative Meeting on the Assessment of Desertification (Nairobi: UNEP-DC/PAC) at 8.
The protracted drought affected six countries on the southern border of the Sahara— Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Upper Volta (today Burkina Faso), Niger and Chad. Crops failed, millions of livestock died, and pastoralists had to flee drought-stricken areas to seek help in the urban areas of the more humid south. It is estimated that 200,000 people died. See H. E. Dregne (1997), “Land Degradation Control in the Drylands: Establishing Priorities”, at 73–88 in H. N. Barakat and K. Hegazy (eds.) Reviews in Ecology: Desert Conservation and Development (Cairo: Metropole);
Dregne (1986); and The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification: A New Response to an Age-old Problem, background paper prepared for Earth Summit+5, available at <u>http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/sustdev/desert.htm</u> , published by the United Nations Department of Public Information, DPI/1870/SD (February 1997)
M. Glantz, (1977), “The UN and Desertification: Dealing with a Global Problem”, at 1–15 in M. H. Glantz (ed.), Desertification: Environmental Degradation in and around Arid Lands (Boulder: Westview Press).
Odingo (1990) at 8.
United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) (1976), document OPI/NGO/SB/96, 20 May 1976, p. 1, as cited in Glantz (1977).
Thomas and Middleton (1994) at 29.
Odingo (1999), “Review of UNEP’s definition of desertification and its programmatic implications”, in Odingo (1999) at 8; UNCOD (1978), Round-up, Plan of Action and Resolutions, (New York: United Nations) at 1.
United Nations (1980), Yearbook of the United Nations 1977 (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information) at 509.
M. Verstraete (1986), “The United Nations Organization and the Issue of Desertification”, at 42–51 in F. El Baz and M. H. A. Hassan (eds.) (1986) Physics of Desertification (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff), as cited in Thomas and Middleton (1994) at 29.
UNCOD (1977) at 7.
UNCOD (1977) at 7; United Nations (1977) at 509.
UNCOD: Round-up, Plan of Action and Resolutions, at 8.
This division of the recommendations into three objectives was made by J. A. Mabutt (1987), “A Review of Progress Since the UN Conference on Desertification”, 15 Desertification Control Bulletin 12–23.
United Nations (1977) at 509.
A. F. El Kassas (1994), “Desertification: A General Overview”, 59:1 Development and Socio-Economic Progress, 14–27.
UNEP (1991), Report of the Executive Director — Status of Desertification and Implementation of the United Nations Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Nairobi: UNEP/GCSS.III/3) at xiv.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987), Food 2000: Global Policies for Sustainable Agriculture (London: Zed Books) at 73–74.
A. Bounajuti (1991), “External Evaluation of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification”, 20 Desertification Control Bulletin, at 30–33.
T. Brenton (1994), The Greening of Machiavelli: The Evolution of International Environmental Politics (London: Earthscan Publications) at 123; Bounajuti (1991).
Bounajuti (1991) at 30–31; Toulmin (1995) at 455–457.
El Kassas (1994) at 21.
See Desertification Control Programme Activity Centre — UNEP (1987), Rolling Back the Desert: Ten Years After UNCOD (Nairobi: UNEP) at 17.
United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolution A/RES/44/172, “Implementation of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification”, 19 December 1989. The UNEP report was presented to its Governing Council in February 1992 as Report of the Executive Director, Status of Desertification and Implementation of the United Nations Plan of Action to Combat Desertification.
J. Bernstein, P. Chasek, L. Goree, R. Jordan and J. McMahan (1997), “UNCED PrepCom III, Third Week Synopsis”, 7:2–3, Earth Negotiations Bulletin;
J. Bernstein, P. Chasek, and L. Goree (1993), “A Summary of the Proceedings for the Organizational Session of the INC for the Elaboration of an International Convention to Combat Desertification”, 4:1 Earth Negotiations Bulletin at 5.
UN document A/CONF.151/PC/62.
Bernstein, Chasek, and Goree (1993), “A Summary of the Proceedings for the Organizational Session of the INC for the Elaboration of an International Convention to Combat Desertification”, at 5.
P. Chatterjee and M. Finger (1994), The Earth Brokers: Power, Politics and World Development (London: Routledge,) at 48.
UN document A/CONF.151/PC/100/Add.17, Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Combating Desertification and Drought.
J. Bernstein, P. Chasek and L. Goree (1992), “PrepCom IV Highlights, Tuesday 10 March”, 1:8 Earth Negotiations Bulletin.
Bernstein, Chasek, and Goree (1992), “A Summary of the Proceedings for the Organizational Session of the INC for the Elaboration of an International Convention to Combat Desertification”, at 5.
The subsequent discussion on the forest issue did not in fact result in a convention, but only in a statement of principles. See Brenton (1994) at pp. 216, 229.
J. P. Bernstein, P. Chasek and L. Goree (1992), “UNCED Highlights, 10 June”, 2:9 Earth Negotiations Bulletin;
see also S. P. Johnson (1993), The Earth Summit: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (London: Graham & Trotman/Martinus Nijhoff). At 243, Johnson argues that the United States changed its position to avoid a negative perception of their role in the Conference and because they did not want to antagonise the Africans. Additionally, the African Group had indicated throughout PrepCom IV and UNCED that it would insist on a convention before approving other UNCED documents.
J. Bernstein, P. Chasek and L. Goree (1992) “PrepCom IV Highlights” 1:11 Earth Negotiations Bulletin.
The request to begin negotiations is found in paragraph 12.40 of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, “Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Combating Desertification and Drought”. See United Nations (1992), Agenda 21: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information) 98–108.
UNGA resolution A/RES/47/188, 22 December 1992.
O. Greene (1996), “The Development and Implementation of International Environmental Regimes” at 280–312 in R. Blackmore and A. Reddish (eds.), Global Environmental Issues (London: Hodder & Stoughton and the Open University) at 296;
S. Briceño, “Synergy Amongst and Between the Rio Conventions” at 183–187 in A. J. Fairclough (ed.) (1998), World Development Aid & Joint Venture Finance 1998/99 (London: Kensington Publications and World Business Council for Sustainable Development).
For a discussion on the biodiversity and climate change conventions see M. Grubb (1993), The “Earth Summit” Agreements: A Guide and Assessment— An Analysis of the Rio ’92 UN Conference on Environment and Development (London: Earthscan).
P. Chasek (1997), “The Convention to Combat Desertification: Lessons Learned for Sustainable Development”, 6:2 Journal of Environment and Development 147–169.
UN, Agenda 21, Chapter 12, at 98; CCD, Art.1(a).
Art. 2(1)
Greene (1996) at 296.
Arts. 10, 11.
Bernstein, Chasek, and Goree (1992) at 2.
El Kassas (1993–1994).
INCD document A/AC.241 /L.22/Rev.1, Resolution on Urgent Action for Africa; INCD document A/AC.241/L.20, Interim Arrangements, 7 June 1994.
Corell, E., W. Mwangi, T. Prather and L. Wagner, “Summary of the Resumed Tenth Session of the INC for the Convention to Combat Desertification”, 18–22 August 1997”, 4:106 Earth Negotiations Bulletin, vol. 4 at 9.
Odingo (1999).
Odingo (1999) at 21.
UNCOD: Round-up, Plan of Action and Resolutions at. 9, para. 16 (o).
UNCOD: Round up, Plan of Action and Resolutions at 8; R. S. Odingo (1990), “The Definition of Desertification: Its Programmatic Consequences for UNEP and the international community”, 18 Desertification Control Bulletin at. 31–50.
UNEP, Status of Desertification and Implementation of the United Nations Plan of Action to Combat Desertification, at xiv–xv.
K. Danish (1995), “International Environmental Law and the ‘Bottom-Up’ Approach: A Review of the CCD”, 3:1 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 133–176.
See, for instance, WCED (1987), Our Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press);
J. P. MacNeill, P. Winsemius and T. Yakushiji (1991), Beyond Interdependence: The Meshing of the World’s Economy and the Earth’s Ecology (New York: Oxford University Press).
In the first two years of GEF operation, 83 percent of its funds were allocated to global warming and biodiversity. GEF Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (1992), Criteria for Eligibility and Priorities for Selection of Global Environmental Facility Projects; GEF (1992), Global Environment Facility: The Pilot Phase and Beyond (Working Paper Series, Number 1).
P. Chasek, L. Goree and W. Mwangi (1993), “INCD Highlights Wednesday 26 May 1993”, 4:5 Earth Negotiations Bulletin at 2.
CCD, art. 20 (2)(b).
Chasek, Goree and Mwangi (1993), “INCD Highlights” at 1.
J. Bernstein, P. Chasek and W. Mwangi (1994), “Summary of the Fourth Session of the INC for the Elaboration of an International Convention to Combat Desertification,” 4:44 Earth Negotiations Bulletin at 7.
See C. Carpenter, P. Doran, A. Gupta and L. Wagner (1997), “UNGASS Highlights”, 5:86 Earth Negotiations Bulletin at 2.
Corell, Mwangi, Prather and Wagner (1997), “Summary of the First Conference of the Parties to the Convention to Combat Desertification” at. 6. It was also agreed that the Global Mechanism would be hosted by a lead institution, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), that the UN Development Programme (UNDP) would appoint the head of the institution, and that the World Bank would assist the IFAD and UNDP.
See E. S. Howard and E. Corell (1998), “Soil/Desertification”, Yearbook of International Environmental Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press).
E. Corell (1998), “North-South Financial Tensions: Desertification after UNGASS”, 7:1 Environmental Politics at 222–226.
CCD, art. 21(4).
ICCD/COP(3)/5, 19 August 1999, “Implementation of the Convention: Review of the implementation of the Convention, including support to regional action programmes”.
ICCD/COP(3)/5/Add.2 (D) and ICCD/COP(3)/5/Add.2 (E), “Implementation of the Convention: Review of Reports on Implementation of Affected African Country Parties, Including the Participatory Process and on Experiences Gained and Results Achieved in the Preparation and Implementation of National Action Programmes” 23 August 1999.
A. Churie, J-S. Fritz, M. Schulman, and L. Wagner (1999), “Highlights from CCD COP-3”, 4:131 Earth Negotiations Bulletin, at 2. For details from the 39 country reports submitted by African countries to COP-3, see ICCD/COP(3)/5/Add.2 (A), (B), (C), (D), and (E), “Implementation of the Convention: Review of reports on implementation of affected African country Parties, including on the participatory process and on experiences gained and results achieved in the preparation and implementation of National Action Programmes” (23 August 1999).
E. Corell (1999), “Actor Influence in the 1993–97 Negotiations of the Convention to Combat Desertification”, 4:2 International Negotiation 197–223.
CCD, preamble para. 21 and arts. 9(3), 13(1)(b) and 21(3).
S. Batterbury and A. Warren (2000), “Desertification”, International Encyclopaedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
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Corell, E. (2003). Dryland Degradation — Africa’s Main Environmental Challenge. In: International Environmental Law and Policy in Africa. Environment & Policy, vol 36. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0135-8_1
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