Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science ((BSPS,volume 205))

  • 225 Accesses

Abstract

We have contrasted scientific theories that claim to represent the reality of nature with those that are just useful fictions establishing connections between phenomena, without any claim to physical truth (chapter VIII). We now tackle a related problem — the comparing of natural products with similar ones made by human art.* In the case of chemical compounds, minerals and rocks, for instance, we could try to find out their composition by means of chemical analysis and then confirm this analysis by a synthesis out of the components. Supposing we find that human art is indeed capable of making things produced also by nature, immediately the question arises: can we find a procedure to make a natural product (e.g. sugar), minerals or rocks in the same way as nature does?

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Notes

  1. Aristotle, Metaphysica, Bk.XII, ch.3, 2070a.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Aristotle, Metaphysics Bk.VII, ch.7, 1032a-b.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Aristotle, Metaphysics, Bk.VII, ch.9, 1034a.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Aristotle, Metaphysics Bk.VII, ch.7, 1032a.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Aristotle, Physica, Bk.II, ch.8, 199a.

    Google Scholar 

  6. AxisloWc, Physica, Bk.II, ch.8, 199b.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Cicero, De Re Publica, Bk.III, ch.22

    Google Scholar 

  8. Cicero, Orator II, 7.

    Google Scholar 

  9. P. de la Ramée, Dialectique, Paris 1555, p.4; quotation from edition M. Dassonville, Genève 1964, p.63. Cf his posthumous work: P. Ramus, Commentationes de Religione Christiana Libri Quattuor. Francofurti 1576, Bk.I, ch.l. See also: R. Hooykaas, Humanisme, Science et Réforme — Pierre de la Ramée (1515 — 1572). Leiden: Brill 1958, p.25.

    Google Scholar 

  10. P. Ramus, Geometria (1569), Bk.I. (Lazarus Schoner ed.) Francofurti 1627, p.l. Hooykaas, Humanisme, p.25.

    Google Scholar 

  11. ... non pas l’art seullet mais beaucoup plus l’exercice d’icelluy et la practique faict l’artisan’ (Ramus, Dialectique, p. 136 (ed. Dassonville p. 153)).

    Google Scholar 

  12. ‘Et vauldroit beaucoup mieux avoir l’usage sans art que l’art sans usage’ (Ramus, Dialectique, Bk.II, p. 139 (ed. Dassonville p. 155)).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Cf Ramus, Scholae Mathematicae 1569 (Lazarus Schoner ed. Francofurti 1599), Bk.IV, p. 109.

    Google Scholar 

  14. ‘… la souveraine lumière de raison’ (Ramus, Dialectique, Bk.II (ed. Dassonville p. 155)).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Ramus, Dialecticae Institutiones (1543), fol.3 vs.

    Google Scholar 

  16. ‘Naturalis autem dialectica, id est, ingenium, ratio, mens, imago parentis omnium rerum Dei, lux denique beatae illius, et aeternae lucis aemula, hominis propria est, cum eoque nascitur’ (ibidem, fol.6r).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Ramus, Dialectique, Bk.II, p. 135 (ed. Dassonville p. 153).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Ibidem, p. 139 (ed. Dassonville p. 155).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Ramus, Dialecticae Institutiones, fol.6r, 5 vs.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Ibidem, fol.6r.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Ibidem, fol.6vs. The consultation of the sponaneous use of dialectics was recommended by some later Ramists. So the New England philosopher Alexander Richardson asserted that logical reasonings are correct when they prove themselves ‘true by the practice of common people’. Cf P. Miller, The New England Mind. New-York 1939, p. 144.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Ibidem, fol.l5r, 44r.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Ramus, Actio pro Regia Mathematicae Professions Cathedra, Habita in Senatu 3 Id. Martis anno 1566. In: Collectaneae Praefationes, Epistolae, Orationes 1577, p.522. Cf Hooykaas, Humanisme, p.94.

    Google Scholar 

  24. This has been demonstrated by J.J. Verdonk, Petrus Ramus en de Wiskunde. Dissertation Amsterdam VU. Assen 1966, pp.117–118.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Johannes Kepler, Harmonice Mundi. Linciae Austriae 1619. (Gesammelte Werke VI, p.82). Ramus and his follower Willebrord Snel (1591 — 1626) made, in Kepler’s opinion, ‘an architect into a wood merchant’ (p. 19). Kepler himself, on the other hand, did not want the tenth book of Euclid for ’making up the account of merchandise but for explaining the causes of things.’ Cf Hooykaas, Humanisme, p.63.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Ramus has been considered as anticipating Descartes as well as Francis Bacon, but both statements should be taken with much reservation. Descartes’s deductive rationalism and Bacon’s experimentalist empiricism are quite different from Ramus’ utilitarianism. Bacon, who studied in Ramist Cambridge, had little sympathy for Ramism, though he shared its predilection for the applied sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Olivier de Serres, Théâtre de l’Agriculture. Préface, p.6. Quoted from the edition Lyon 1675.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Olivier de Serres, Théâtre de l’Agriculture. Préface, p.4.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Olivier de Serres, Théâtre de l’Agriculture. Préface.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Olivier de Serres, Théâtre de l’Agriculture. Préface, p.5.

    Google Scholar 

  31. In particular the more refined viniculture he advised to be entrusted only to educated people and not to ignorant peasants whose taste is as rude as their understanding (ibidem, lib.III, ch.6., p. 177).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Ramus, Oratio de sua Professione. In: Collectanea, p.526. For Ramus’ astronomical ideas see Hooykaas, Humanisme, ch.9 and Hooykaas, G.J. Rheticus’ Treatise, ch.8.

    Google Scholar 

  33. See: R. Hooykaas, G J. Rheticus’ Treatise, ch.8: ‘Rheticus, Ramus and the Copernican Hypotheses’.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Kepler, Harmonice Mundi, Bk.IV, ch. 1, p 223.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Miller, The New England Mind, pp. 146–9.

    Google Scholar 

  36. That the 16th century Puritans were ‘somehow grotesque, elderly people, outside the main current of life’ the late prof. CS. Lewis called wan absurd idea’: ‘In their own day they were considered, of course, the very latest thing…’ (C.S. Lewis, English Literature in the Sixteenth Century, excluding Drama, Oxford 1954, p.43).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Milton’s re-writing of Ramus’ Dialectica appeared in 1672 (Miller, The New England Mind, p. 118).

    Google Scholar 

  38. ‘Fundatur igitur Geometria in praxi Mechanica — et nihil aliud est quam Mechanicae universalis pars ilia quae artem mensurandi accurate proponit ac demonstrat’ (Isaac Newton, Principia Mathematica. Praefatio ad lectorem).

    Google Scholar 

  39. ‘At eius picturam, non poësim videmus … qui motus hominum, qui ferarum non ita epictus est, ut quae ipse non viderit nos ut videremus effecerit’, Cicero, Tusculan Disputations Bk.V, 39, 114 (quoted from Hooykaas, ‘Humanities’, p.9 n.35).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Horace, De Arte Poetica, line 361. Reference from Hooykaas, ‘Humanities’, p.9 n.36.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Plato, Republica Bk.X, 596–598

    Google Scholar 

  42. Plato, Republica Bk.X, 596, 597b-e, 598b. We should realize that Plato regarded manual workers as inferior to philosophers (men of science), while the Renaissance artists yearned to be recognized as cultivators of a ‘science’ rather than of a mere (manual) art.

    Google Scholar 

  43. L.B. Alberti, De Re Aediflcatoria, Bk.VI, ch.2; ed. Parisiis 1512, fol.81.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Ramus, Dialecticae Institutions (1543), 7vs. Apelles, according to Plutarch the only painter whom Alexander the Great allowed to make his portrait, was considered the greatest painter of Antiquity. Ramus (and also Francisco de Holanda) speaks as if he is sure of the quality of Apelles’ work, but it should be realized that he had to resort to Pliny’s reports.

    Google Scholar 

  45. ‘imitari pingendo conemur’ (ibidem).

    Google Scholar 

  46. ‘imitari pingendo conemur’, 56vs.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, p.209.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, p.209.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, p.211

    Google Scholar 

  50. Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, Bk.II, dial.II, p.208.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, Bk.I, ch.14, p.98.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, Bk.I,ch.l5,p.99.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, Bk.I, ch.2, p.66.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Francisco de Holanda, Ao Rei Dom Sebastiäo, De quanto Serve a Sciencia do Desenho e Entendimento da Arte da Pintura na Republica Crista, asi na Paz como na Guerra. In: Da Fabrica que Fallece à Cidade Lisbao. Da Sciencia do Desenho, ed. J. de Vasconcellos, Porto 1879, p.6 (fol. 16).

    Google Scholar 

  55. Bacon, Novum Organum I, p.7 (fol.37v).

    Google Scholar 

  56. Aristotle, Physica, Bk.II, ch.8, 199al5ff.

    Google Scholar 

  57. For Sala see R. Hooykaas, Het Begrip Element in zijn historisch-wijsgeerige Ontwikkeling. Utrecht 1933, pp.148–153, 155–157.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Henri Langenstein, Tractatus de Reductione Effectuum Specialium. Quoted by P. Duhem, Le Système du Monde, Vol.VII, Paris, repr. 1954, pp.597–598.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, Bk.I, aph.88. (In: Works, Spedding, Ellis and Heath ed., London 1857–1874; Vol.1, p.195.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Francis Bacon, New Atlantis (Works III, pp. 157–159).

    Google Scholar 

  61. Bacon, Novum Organum I, aph.3 (Works I, pp.157, 144).

    Google Scholar 

  62. Bacon, Novum Organum I, aph.4 (Works I, p. 157).

    Google Scholar 

  63. Bacon, De Augmentis II, ch.2 (Works 1, p. 196). Also: —, Descriptio Globi Intellectualis, ch.2 (Works III, p.730); —, Novum Organum I, aph.66, 75 (Works I, pp.177, 184).

    Google Scholar 

  64. Bacon, Historia Naturalis et Experimentalis (Works II, p. 14).

    Google Scholar 

  65. ‘Et sane nullae sunt in Mechanica rationes, quae non etiam ad Physicam, cujus pars vel species est, pertineant: nee minus naturale est horologio, ex his vel illis rotis composito, ut horas indicet, quam arbori ex hoc vel illo semine ortae, ut tales fructus producat’ (René Descartes, Principia Philosophiae, P.IV, sect.203; Oeuvres VIII, p.326).

    Google Scholar 

  66. J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, p.298. In fact the direct interaction of iron and sulphur yields (black) ferrous sulphide [FeS] and not brass-coloured pyrite [FeS2].

    Google Scholar 

  67. J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, ch.l3,p.297.

    Google Scholar 

  68. J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, p.298. Elementary particles form a ‘mixture’; mixta form a ‘compositum’; composita form a ‘decompositum’. Henckel refuses, however, to enter into the problem which are the ingredients that form iron (or sulphur) and which are those forming natural pyrite (p.294).

    Google Scholar 

  69. J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, pp.295–297.

    Google Scholar 

  70. J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760,ch.i4,p.331.

    Google Scholar 

  71. J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, pp.330–1.

    Google Scholar 

  72. J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, p.363.

    Google Scholar 

  73. J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, ch.l3,p.293.

    Google Scholar 

  74. G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749, par.9–10: ‘Opera pretium autem facturum arbitror, qui naturae effecta ex subterraneis eruta diligentius conférât cum foetibus laboratoriorum (sic enim Chymicorum officinas vocamus) quando mira persaepe in ratis et factis similitudo apparet.’ Also sect.9, p. 18, sect. 10, p.28.

    Google Scholar 

  75. G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, sect. 10, p.22: ‘cui montes sunt pro Alembicis, Vulcani pro furnis.’

    Google Scholar 

  76. G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, sect.9, p. 18: ‘neque enim aliud est natura, quam ars quaedam magna, nee semper toto génère a nativis factitia distinguuntur; nec refert eandemne rem Daedalus aliquis vulcanius in furno invenibus an lapicida ac terrae visceribus proférât in lucem.’

    Google Scholar 

  77. Nicolas Leblanc, De la Cristallotechnie, ou Essai sur les Phénomènes de la Cristallisation … Paris, an X — 1802. Leblanc was the inventor of the industrial process for making soda (1791 — 92, p.72).

    Google Scholar 

  78. G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, p.65; cfp.VIII.

    Google Scholar 

  79. G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, $.82.

    Google Scholar 

  80. G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, p.VI-II.

    Google Scholar 

  81. G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, p.X.

    Google Scholar 

  82. G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, p.73.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Gay-Lussac, ‘Réflexions sur les Volcans’, in: Ann. Chim. Phys. 22 (1823), pp.415–429.

    Google Scholar 

  84. E. Mitscherlich, ‘über künstliche Krystalle von Eisenoxyd’, in: Ann. der Physik und Chemie 1829, pp.630–632.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Letter quoted by K.C. von Leonhard, Hüttenerzeugnisse und andere auf künstlichem Wege gebildete Mineralien als Stütz-Puncte geologischer Hypothesen. Stuttgart 1858, p.63.

    Google Scholar 

  86. C.W.C. Fuchs, ‘Die künstlich dargestellten Mineralien …’, in: Natuurkundige Verhandelingen der Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen. 3e reeks dl.I, Haarlem 1872, p.3.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Cf H. de Sénarmont, ‘Expériences sur la Formation des Minéraux par Voie humide dans les Gîtes métallifères concrétionnés’, in: Comptes Rendus Ac. Sei 32 (1851), p.409.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Durocher, Comptes Rendus Ac. Sei 32 (1851), p.8: ‘C’est en combinant les résultats obtenus en laboratoire avec l’étude géologique des caractères propres aux divers gîtes, que l’on peut apprécier la manière dont ces phénomènes se sont passés dans l’intérieur de la terre.’

    Google Scholar 

  89. J. Hall, Transact. RSE 3 (1790), pp.9–11; ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, in: Transact. RSE 5(1798),p.43,59.

    Google Scholar 

  90. The phenomenon of devitrification of glass had been observed before, e.g. by Reaumur, but it had not been recognized as ‘cristallisation’ (Cf Dartigues, ‘Mémoire sur la Dévitrification du Verre’, in: J. d. Physique 59 (1804), p.6–8).

    Google Scholar 

  91. J. Hutton, Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations, Vol.1, Edinburgh 1795, p.25. Quoted by Hall, ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, Trans. RSE 5 (1798), p.45.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Hall, ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, p.45.

    Google Scholar 

  93. J.F. d’Aubuisson de Voisins, Traité de Géognosie, Vol.I, Strasbourg-Paris 1814, pp.XXX-XXXI.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Hall, ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, pp.48, 56, 59,43,45.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Hall, ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, p.6S.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Hall, Transact. RSE6(\805), or 5 (1802), p.74.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Hall, Transact. RSE6, p.76.

    Google Scholar 

  98. J. Hall, ‘Account of a Series of Experiments, Shewing the Effects of Compression in Modifying the Action of Heat’, in: Transact. RSE 6(1812).

    Google Scholar 

  99. Ibidem, pp.152, 173.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Gregory Watt, ‘Observations on Basalt, and on the Transition from the Vitreous to the Stony Texture, which Occurs in the Gradual Refrigeration of Melted Basalt; with some Geological Remarks’, in: Phil. Trans. London (1804), pt.II, pp.279 ff.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Dartigues, ‘Mémoire sur la Dévitrification du Verre. Et les Phénomènes qui arrivent pendant sa Cristallisation’, in: J. d. Physique 59 (1804), p.13.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, pp.409–470.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Ibidem, pAil.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, p.418.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, p.453.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, p.459.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, pM2.

    Google Scholar 

  108. J.A.L. Hausmann, 10 February 1816 in the ‘Versammlung der K. Wissenschaftlichen Sozietät zu Göttingen’ (quoted by Von Leonhard in: Hüttenerzeugnisse).

    Google Scholar 

  109. Von Leonhard, Hüttenerzeugnisse.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action’, p.411.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Th. Scheerer, ‘Discussion sur la Nature Plutonique du Granite et des Silicates cristallisés qui s’y rallient’, in: Bull. Soc. Géol. de France 4, pp.468–496. Cf K.A.von Zittel, Geschichte der Geologie und der Paléontologie. München 1899, p.749. See also: Th. Scheerer, Der Paramorphismus, Braunschweig 1854.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Daubrée, études et Experiences synthétiques sur le Métamorphisme et sur la Formation des Roches cristallisées. Paris 1859.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Daubrée, études et Experiences synthétiques sur le Métamorphisme et sur la Formation des Roches cristallisées, p.IX.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Daubrée, études et Experiences synthétiques sur le Métamorphisme et sur la Formation des Roches cristallisées, p.U3-\l5.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Daubrée, études et Experiences synthétiques sur le Métamorphisme et sur la Formation des Roches cristallisées, p. 147. It should be noticed that it had long been recognized that the same minerals and rocks could have dissimilar origins. As H.H. Read (The Granite Controversy. London 1957) put it: ’there are granites and granites.’

    Google Scholar 

  116. F. Fouqué and Michel Levy, Synthèse des Minéraux et des Roches, Paris 1882, p.6: ‘… l’union de la cristallographie, de la chimie et de la géologie … cette triple alliance.’

    Google Scholar 

  117. F. Fouqué and Michel Levy, Synthèse des Minéraux et des Roches, Paris 1882, p.6: ‘… l’union de la cristallographie, de la chimie et de la géologie … cette triple alliance, p.63.

    Google Scholar 

  118. N. Desmarest, ‘Sur l’Origine et la Nature du Basalte à grandes Colonnes polygones, déterminées par l’Histoire naturelle de cette Pierre, observée en Auvergne’, in: Mém. Acad. Sei. Paris 1771, 87 (1774), pp.705–775. It is interesting that this staunch defender of the igneous (volcanic) origin of basalt maintained, against Hutton, the neptunistic conception of the origin of granite. See: Encyclopédie Méthodique, Vol.1, Paris, an III (1794), pp.749, 752, 756.

    Google Scholar 

  119. A.F. Fourcroy, Système des Connaissances chimiques, et leurs Applications aux Phénomènes de la Nature et de l’Art. Vol.VII, Paris, an IX, sect.7, pp.5–7, 54–55.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Thenard, Traité de Chimie élémentaire théorique et pratique, Vol.III, 3.éd. Paris 1821, pp.3–4.

    Google Scholar 

  121. F. von Kobell, Vergleichende Betrachtungen über die Mannigfaltigkeit in der organischen und anorganischen Natur. München 1836, p.12. Lamarck went much further: according to his ‘pyrotic theory’ all compounds tend to disintegrate into their components; the existence of composite bodies is due to their organic origin. The ‘pouvoir de la vie’ is a force acting against the general ‘tendance de la nature’ to decomposition (J.B. Lamarck, Réfutation de la Théorie pneumatique ou de lanouvelle Doctrine des Chimistes modernes. Paris an IV, p. 12). Also: J.B. Lamarck, Recherches sur les Causes des principaux Faits physiques. Paris an II (1795), Vol.II, p.273, 289, 27. Also: J.B. Lamarck, Hydrogéologie, Paris an X, p. 100: ‘…. les Principes de tout composé quelconque ont une tendance à se dégager’. ‘L’action organique des corps vivans forme sans cesse des combinaisons qui n’eussent jamais existé sans cette cause’ (pp. 105, 117).

    Google Scholar 

  122. F. Wöhler, ‘über die künstliche Bildung von Harnstoff’, in: Pogg. Ann. Phys. 12 (1828), p.25. Cf Wöhler to Berzelius, 22 February 1828 (quoted by C. Graebe, Geschichte der organischen Chemie I, Berlin 1920, p.55).

    Google Scholar 

  123. Ch. Gerhardt, Précis de Chimie organique, Vol.I, Paris 1844, pp. 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  124. Ch. Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie organique, Vol.I, Paris 1853, p.l.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Ch. Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie organique, Vol.I,p.l.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Ch. Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie organique, Vol.I, p.4.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Ch. Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie organique, Vol.I, p.3.

    Google Scholar 

  128. R. Hooykaas, ‘Die Chemie in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts’, in: Technikgeschichte 33, nr. 1(1966), pp. 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  129. J.F. Daniell, An Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy. 2. ed., London 1843, p.3.

    Google Scholar 

  130. In: Marcellin Berthelot, Science et Philosophie. Paris 1886, p.66.

    Google Scholar 

  131. In: Marcellin Berthelot, Science et Philosophie. Paris 1886, p.67.

    Google Scholar 

  132. In: Marcellin Berthelot, Science et Philosophie. Paris 1886, p.64.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Galileo Galilei, Discorsi (1638). Quoted from —, Discourses and Demonstrations Touching Two New Sciences In: Thomas Salusbury, Mathematical Collections and Translations, Vol.II, London 1665, p.3.

    Google Scholar 

  134. A.L. Lavoisier, Traité de Chimie, 2. ed., Vol.I, Paris 1793, p.69.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Ptolemy, The Almagest, Bk.XIII, ch.2. Quoted after the translation in ed. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago 1952, p.429

    Google Scholar 

  136. Willem Jansz. Blaeu, Tweevoudigh Onderwijs van de Hemelsche en Aerdsche Globen; Het een na de Meyning van Ptolemeus met een vasten Aerdkloot; Het ander na de natuerlijcke Stelling van N. Copernicus met een loopenden Aerdkloot. Amsterdam: Joan. Blaeu 1666. The Latin translation appeared as: Philolai, sive Dissertationis de Vero Systemate Mundi (4 vols.). Amsterdam: Guil. & Iohannem Blaeu 1639. See also chapter VI, ‘And the Sun stood still’.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, p.12: ‘… forma sphaerica perfectissime et cum terra globosa maxime consentit.’

    Google Scholar 

  138. Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, p. 13.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3.VI,ch.l,ch.4.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, lib.VI, ch.4, p.223: ‘Omitto quod Petrus Peregrinus constanter affirmât, terrellam … moved circulariter intégra volutatione 24 horis! Quod tarnen nobis adhuc videre non contigit.’

    Google Scholar 

  141. Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, lib.II, ch.2, p.60: ‘The electric motion is the motion of conservation of matter; the magnet motion is that of arrangement and order. The matter of the terrestrial globe is brought together and held together by itself electrically. The earth’s globe is directed and revolved magnetical.’

    Google Scholar 

  142. Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, lib.IV,ch.2,p.l55.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, Bk.II,ch.35,p.l03.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, lib.VI, ch.4, pp.223–224.

    Google Scholar 

  145. Beeckman had seen this through Andreas Colvius (Kolff), the Reformed minister in the Netherlands’ embassy in Venice. The work was not printed before 1780, but the theory was mentioned in Galileo’s Dialogues on the Two World Systems (1632). Cf ed. Salusbury, Vol.1, Dialogue IV, p.380.

    Google Scholar 

  146. C. de Waard ed., Journal tenu par Isaac Beeckman, Vol.III, Den Haag 1945, p.206 (12 April 1631). Beeckman proposed to make groves on the surface, representing the Atlantic Ocean, in order to check whether the revolutions cause ebb and flow twice every 24 hours. It should be noticed that Galileo rejected the explanation by influence of the moon and the sun, and that he even criticized Kepler for adhering to such a non-mechanical explanation: ‘I more wonder at Kepler than any of the rest, who being of a free and piercing wit, and having the motion ascribed to the Earth, before him, hath for all that given his ear and consent to the Moon’s predominancy over the Water, and to occult properties and such like trifles’ (Dialogue IV, ed. Salusbury, Vol.1, p.422). Descartes, too, wanted a mechanistic explanation which implied low tide when, in fact, there is high tide. Both cases show that mechanicists who scorned ‘occult qualities’ were led to absurdities no less than those they rejected.

    Google Scholar 

  147. Aristotle, Meteor ologica, Bk.II, ch.8, 367al0.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Albertus Magnus, Meteororum, Bk.III, tr.2, ch.17: ‘Dico autem qualitatem moventem caliditatem solam, cujus exemplum in artificialibus sit … generatur vapor in vase, quern fortificatum retro erumpit per alterum foramen obstructum: et si irrumpit superius, longe projicit aquam sparsam in ignem, et impetu vaporis projicit … carbones et cineres calidos longe ab igne super circumstantia loca…’

    Google Scholar 

  149. Nicolas Lémery, Mém. Acad. Royale d. Sciences (1700), pp.131 ff.

    Google Scholar 

  150. ‘Extrait de quelques Lettres du Docteur Paccard, Sur les Causes … de la Direction oblique perpendiculaire, horizontale des Couches ornées et apparentes, etc., et sur la Manière d’imiter artificiellement les Mines’, in: Observations sur la Physique de Rozier et Mongez 18 (1781), pp.184–192.

    Google Scholar 

  151. ‘Extrait de quelques Lettres du Docteur Paccard, Sur les Causes … de la Direction oblique perpendiculaire, horizontale des Couches ornées et apparentes, etc., et sur la Manière d’imiter artificiellement les Mines’, in: Observations sur la Physique de Rozier et Mongez 18 (1781),, p. 186.

    Google Scholar 

  152. ‘Extrait de quelques Lettres du Docteur Paccard, Sur les Causes … de la Direction oblique perpendiculaire, horizontale des Couches ornées et apparentes, etc., et sur la Manière d’imiter artificiellement les Mines’, in: Observations sur la Physique de Rozier et Mongez 18 (1781),, pp. 187–189.

    Google Scholar 

  153. ‘Extrait de quelques Lettres du Docteur Paccard, Sur les Causes … de la Direction oblique perpendiculaire, horizontale des Couches ornées et apparentes, etc., et sur la Manière d’imiter artificiellement les Mines’, in: Observations sur la Physique de Rozier et Mongez 18 (1781),, p.\92.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Cf Bailey Willis, ‘The Mechanics of the Appalachian Structure’, in: U.S. Geol. Survey, 3d Annual Report, Washington 1893, pp.210–283.

    Google Scholar 

  155. A. Favre, Comptes Rendus Ac. Sei. 86 (1878), pp. 1092–1094.

    Google Scholar 

  156. A. Daubrée, études synthétiques de Géologie expérimentale. Paris 1879, ch.IV, p.288.

    Google Scholar 

  157. A. Daubrée, études synthétiques de Géologie expérimentale. Paris 1879, ch.IV, p.294.

    Google Scholar 

  158. L. de Launay, La Science géologique, ses Méthodes, ses Résultats, ses Problèmes, son Histoire. 2. ed., Paris 1913, pp.27–28.

    Google Scholar 

  159. James David Forbes (20 April 1809 — 11 December 1868) was professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh 1833 — 1859; Principal of United College St Andrews 1859 — 1868. After 1840 his main interest shifted from physics to geology. He discovered the polarization and double refraction of radiant heat, and investigated the movements and structure of glaciers (Alps, Norway) and their causes.

    Google Scholar 

  160. J.D. Forbes, Travels through the Alps of Savoy. Edinburgh 1893, p.365.

    Google Scholar 

  161. J.D. Forbes, ‘Experiments on the Flow of Plastic Bodies and Observations on the Phenomena of Lava Streams’, in: Philosophical Transactions 1846; quoted from: J.D. Forbes, Occasional Papers, Edinburgh 1859,XI,p.77.

    Google Scholar 

  162. J.D. Forbes, ‘Experiments on the Flow of Plastic Bodies and Observations on the Phenomena of Lava Streams’, in: Philosophical Transactions 1846; quoted from: J.D. Forbes, Occasional Papers, Edinburgh 1859,XI, p.78.

    Google Scholar 

  163. J.D. Forbes, ‘Experiments on the Flow of Plastic Bodies and Observations on the Phenomena of Lava Streams’, in: Philosophical Transactions 1846; quoted from: J.D. Forbes, Occasional Papers, Edinburgh 1859,XI, p.82.

    Google Scholar 

  164. Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire, in: Mém. Ac. d. Sei. Paris 12 (1832), p.80.

    Google Scholar 

  165. Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire, in: Mém. Ac. d. Sei. Paris 12 (1832), p.82.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Qf Hooykaas, Natural Law and Divine Miracle. A Historical-Critical Study of the Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology and Theology. Leiden 4959, 21963, pp.117–118. Also R. Hooykaas, Continuité et Discontinuité en Géologie et Biologie, Paris 1970, pp.202–203.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire, Mém. Musée Hist. Naturelle 17 (1828), p.213.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. London 1859, ch.3, p.61.

    Google Scholar 

  169. J.D. Forbes, ‘Theoretical Investigations, Intended to Illustrate the Phenomena of Polarisation’, in: Suppl. Encyclop. Britt. (1823), p.415.

    Google Scholar 

  170. ijQ form wkat Qauss caiieci a ‘construirbare Vorstellung’ of the invisible process of electrical action is the great desideratum in this part of science’ (Nature 11 (1874) (The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. W.D. Niven ed. London 1890, Vol.11, p.419)).

    Google Scholar 

  171. Maxwell, ‘On Faraday’s Lines of Force’, in: Transact. Cambr. Phil SocAO (1855–56) pt I (Scientific Papers I, p. 155).

    Google Scholar 

  172. Maxwell, ‘On Faraday’s Lines of Force’, in: Transact. Cambr. Phil SocAO (1855–56) pt I (Scientific Papers I, p. 160.

    Google Scholar 

  173. Maxwell, ‘On Physical Lines of Force’, in: Phil. Mag. 21 (1861) and 23 (1862) (The theory of molecular vortices applied to electric currents); Scientific Papers I, pp.468 ff.

    Google Scholar 

  174. Maxwell himself called his conception ‘somewhat awkward’ (Scientific Papers II, p.486).

    Google Scholar 

  175. Ibidem.

    Google Scholar 

  176. William Thomson, ‘Steps towards a Kinetic Theory of Matter’, in: Brit. Assoc. Report 1884. Quoted from: W. Thomson, Popular Lectures and Addresses, Vol.1, London 1889, pp. 235–236.

    Google Scholar 

  177. Ibidem, p.240.

    Google Scholar 

  178. W. Thomson, Mathematical and Physical Papers, Vol.III, London 1890, pp.505–507.

    Google Scholar 

  179. Cf S.P. Thompson, The Life of William Thomson, Vol.11, London 1910, p.830. With Thomson the confidence in mechanical models competed with the acknowledgement that as yet no adequate models and theories had been formed. He was concerned that ‘the scales will fall from our eyes; that we shall look on things in a different way — when that which is now a difficulty will be the only common sense and intelligible way of looking at the subject’ (Thomson, Math, and Phys. Papers, Vol.III, p.511;cfp.465).

    Google Scholar 

  180. Thomson, ibidem, p.484.

    Google Scholar 

  181. O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.202.

    Google Scholar 

  182. O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.206.

    Google Scholar 

  183. O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.59.

    Google Scholar 

  184. O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.66.

    Google Scholar 

  185. O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.67.

    Google Scholar 

  186. Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.13.

    Google Scholar 

  187. Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.44.

    Google Scholar 

  188. Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.35.

    Google Scholar 

  189. Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.35.

    Google Scholar 

  190. Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.44.

    Google Scholar 

  191. Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.45.

    Google Scholar 

  192. Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, pp.46–48.

    Google Scholar 

  193. Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.49.

    Google Scholar 

  194. Maxwell, Brit. Assoc. Reports, Liverpool 1870; Scientific Papers II, p.219.

    Google Scholar 

  195. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, p.67.

    Google Scholar 

  196. Maxwell, ‘On Faraday’s Lines of Force’ (Scientific Papers I, p. 156).

    Google Scholar 

  197. Maxwell, ‘Address Math. Phys. Section Brit. Assoc 1870’; Scientific Papers II, p.220.

    Google Scholar 

  198. James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p. 141.

    Google Scholar 

  199. James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.142.

    Google Scholar 

  200. James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.146.

    Google Scholar 

  201. James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.148.

    Google Scholar 

  202. James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.149.

    Google Scholar 

  203. James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.127.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hooykaas, R. (1999). Works of Nature, Works of Art. In: Fact, Faith and Fiction in the Development of Science. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol 205. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9295-6_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9295-6_10

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-90-481-5248-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-015-9295-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics