Abstract
We have contrasted scientific theories that claim to represent the reality of nature with those that are just useful fictions establishing connections between phenomena, without any claim to physical truth (chapter VIII). We now tackle a related problem — the comparing of natural products with similar ones made by human art.* In the case of chemical compounds, minerals and rocks, for instance, we could try to find out their composition by means of chemical analysis and then confirm this analysis by a synthesis out of the components. Supposing we find that human art is indeed capable of making things produced also by nature, immediately the question arises: can we find a procedure to make a natural product (e.g. sugar), minerals or rocks in the same way as nature does?
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Notes
Aristotle, Metaphysica, Bk.XII, ch.3, 2070a.
Aristotle, Metaphysics Bk.VII, ch.7, 1032a-b.
Aristotle, Metaphysics, Bk.VII, ch.9, 1034a.
Aristotle, Metaphysics Bk.VII, ch.7, 1032a.
Aristotle, Physica, Bk.II, ch.8, 199a.
AxisloWc, Physica, Bk.II, ch.8, 199b.
Cicero, De Re Publica, Bk.III, ch.22
Cicero, Orator II, 7.
P. de la Ramée, Dialectique, Paris 1555, p.4; quotation from edition M. Dassonville, Genève 1964, p.63. Cf his posthumous work: P. Ramus, Commentationes de Religione Christiana Libri Quattuor. Francofurti 1576, Bk.I, ch.l. See also: R. Hooykaas, Humanisme, Science et Réforme — Pierre de la Ramée (1515 — 1572). Leiden: Brill 1958, p.25.
P. Ramus, Geometria (1569), Bk.I. (Lazarus Schoner ed.) Francofurti 1627, p.l. Hooykaas, Humanisme, p.25.
... non pas l’art seullet mais beaucoup plus l’exercice d’icelluy et la practique faict l’artisan’ (Ramus, Dialectique, p. 136 (ed. Dassonville p. 153)).
‘Et vauldroit beaucoup mieux avoir l’usage sans art que l’art sans usage’ (Ramus, Dialectique, Bk.II, p. 139 (ed. Dassonville p. 155)).
Cf Ramus, Scholae Mathematicae 1569 (Lazarus Schoner ed. Francofurti 1599), Bk.IV, p. 109.
‘… la souveraine lumière de raison’ (Ramus, Dialectique, Bk.II (ed. Dassonville p. 155)).
Ramus, Dialecticae Institutiones (1543), fol.3 vs.
‘Naturalis autem dialectica, id est, ingenium, ratio, mens, imago parentis omnium rerum Dei, lux denique beatae illius, et aeternae lucis aemula, hominis propria est, cum eoque nascitur’ (ibidem, fol.6r).
Ramus, Dialectique, Bk.II, p. 135 (ed. Dassonville p. 153).
Ibidem, p. 139 (ed. Dassonville p. 155).
Ramus, Dialecticae Institutiones, fol.6r, 5 vs.
Ibidem, fol.6r.
Ibidem, fol.6vs. The consultation of the sponaneous use of dialectics was recommended by some later Ramists. So the New England philosopher Alexander Richardson asserted that logical reasonings are correct when they prove themselves ‘true by the practice of common people’. Cf P. Miller, The New England Mind. New-York 1939, p. 144.
Ibidem, fol.l5r, 44r.
Ramus, Actio pro Regia Mathematicae Professions Cathedra, Habita in Senatu 3 Id. Martis anno 1566. In: Collectaneae Praefationes, Epistolae, Orationes 1577, p.522. Cf Hooykaas, Humanisme, p.94.
This has been demonstrated by J.J. Verdonk, Petrus Ramus en de Wiskunde. Dissertation Amsterdam VU. Assen 1966, pp.117–118.
Johannes Kepler, Harmonice Mundi. Linciae Austriae 1619. (Gesammelte Werke VI, p.82). Ramus and his follower Willebrord Snel (1591 — 1626) made, in Kepler’s opinion, ‘an architect into a wood merchant’ (p. 19). Kepler himself, on the other hand, did not want the tenth book of Euclid for ’making up the account of merchandise but for explaining the causes of things.’ Cf Hooykaas, Humanisme, p.63.
Ramus has been considered as anticipating Descartes as well as Francis Bacon, but both statements should be taken with much reservation. Descartes’s deductive rationalism and Bacon’s experimentalist empiricism are quite different from Ramus’ utilitarianism. Bacon, who studied in Ramist Cambridge, had little sympathy for Ramism, though he shared its predilection for the applied sciences.
Olivier de Serres, Théâtre de l’Agriculture. Préface, p.6. Quoted from the edition Lyon 1675.
Olivier de Serres, Théâtre de l’Agriculture. Préface, p.4.
Olivier de Serres, Théâtre de l’Agriculture. Préface.
Olivier de Serres, Théâtre de l’Agriculture. Préface, p.5.
In particular the more refined viniculture he advised to be entrusted only to educated people and not to ignorant peasants whose taste is as rude as their understanding (ibidem, lib.III, ch.6., p. 177).
Ramus, Oratio de sua Professione. In: Collectanea, p.526. For Ramus’ astronomical ideas see Hooykaas, Humanisme, ch.9 and Hooykaas, G.J. Rheticus’ Treatise, ch.8.
See: R. Hooykaas, G J. Rheticus’ Treatise, ch.8: ‘Rheticus, Ramus and the Copernican Hypotheses’.
Kepler, Harmonice Mundi, Bk.IV, ch. 1, p 223.
Miller, The New England Mind, pp. 146–9.
That the 16th century Puritans were ‘somehow grotesque, elderly people, outside the main current of life’ the late prof. CS. Lewis called wan absurd idea’: ‘In their own day they were considered, of course, the very latest thing…’ (C.S. Lewis, English Literature in the Sixteenth Century, excluding Drama, Oxford 1954, p.43).
Milton’s re-writing of Ramus’ Dialectica appeared in 1672 (Miller, The New England Mind, p. 118).
‘Fundatur igitur Geometria in praxi Mechanica — et nihil aliud est quam Mechanicae universalis pars ilia quae artem mensurandi accurate proponit ac demonstrat’ (Isaac Newton, Principia Mathematica. Praefatio ad lectorem).
‘At eius picturam, non poësim videmus … qui motus hominum, qui ferarum non ita epictus est, ut quae ipse non viderit nos ut videremus effecerit’, Cicero, Tusculan Disputations Bk.V, 39, 114 (quoted from Hooykaas, ‘Humanities’, p.9 n.35).
Horace, De Arte Poetica, line 361. Reference from Hooykaas, ‘Humanities’, p.9 n.36.
Plato, Republica Bk.X, 596–598
Plato, Republica Bk.X, 596, 597b-e, 598b. We should realize that Plato regarded manual workers as inferior to philosophers (men of science), while the Renaissance artists yearned to be recognized as cultivators of a ‘science’ rather than of a mere (manual) art.
L.B. Alberti, De Re Aediflcatoria, Bk.VI, ch.2; ed. Parisiis 1512, fol.81.
Ramus, Dialecticae Institutions (1543), 7vs. Apelles, according to Plutarch the only painter whom Alexander the Great allowed to make his portrait, was considered the greatest painter of Antiquity. Ramus (and also Francisco de Holanda) speaks as if he is sure of the quality of Apelles’ work, but it should be realized that he had to resort to Pliny’s reports.
‘imitari pingendo conemur’ (ibidem).
‘imitari pingendo conemur’, 56vs.
Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, p.209.
Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, p.209.
Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, p.211
Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, Bk.II, dial.II, p.208.
Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, Bk.I, ch.14, p.98.
Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, Bk.I,ch.l5,p.99.
Francisco de Holanda, Da Pintura Antiqua (J. de Vasconcellos ed. Porto 1918) Bk.II, dial.II, Bk.I, ch.2, p.66.
Francisco de Holanda, Ao Rei Dom Sebastiäo, De quanto Serve a Sciencia do Desenho e Entendimento da Arte da Pintura na Republica Crista, asi na Paz como na Guerra. In: Da Fabrica que Fallece à Cidade Lisbao. Da Sciencia do Desenho, ed. J. de Vasconcellos, Porto 1879, p.6 (fol. 16).
Bacon, Novum Organum I, p.7 (fol.37v).
Aristotle, Physica, Bk.II, ch.8, 199al5ff.
For Sala see R. Hooykaas, Het Begrip Element in zijn historisch-wijsgeerige Ontwikkeling. Utrecht 1933, pp.148–153, 155–157.
Henri Langenstein, Tractatus de Reductione Effectuum Specialium. Quoted by P. Duhem, Le Système du Monde, Vol.VII, Paris, repr. 1954, pp.597–598.
Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, Bk.I, aph.88. (In: Works, Spedding, Ellis and Heath ed., London 1857–1874; Vol.1, p.195.
Francis Bacon, New Atlantis (Works III, pp. 157–159).
Bacon, Novum Organum I, aph.3 (Works I, pp.157, 144).
Bacon, Novum Organum I, aph.4 (Works I, p. 157).
Bacon, De Augmentis II, ch.2 (Works 1, p. 196). Also: —, Descriptio Globi Intellectualis, ch.2 (Works III, p.730); —, Novum Organum I, aph.66, 75 (Works I, pp.177, 184).
Bacon, Historia Naturalis et Experimentalis (Works II, p. 14).
‘Et sane nullae sunt in Mechanica rationes, quae non etiam ad Physicam, cujus pars vel species est, pertineant: nee minus naturale est horologio, ex his vel illis rotis composito, ut horas indicet, quam arbori ex hoc vel illo semine ortae, ut tales fructus producat’ (René Descartes, Principia Philosophiae, P.IV, sect.203; Oeuvres VIII, p.326).
J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, p.298. In fact the direct interaction of iron and sulphur yields (black) ferrous sulphide [FeS] and not brass-coloured pyrite [FeS2].
J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, ch.l3,p.297.
J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, p.298. Elementary particles form a ‘mixture’; mixta form a ‘compositum’; composita form a ‘decompositum’. Henckel refuses, however, to enter into the problem which are the ingredients that form iron (or sulphur) and which are those forming natural pyrite (p.294).
J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, pp.295–297.
J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760,ch.i4,p.331.
J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, pp.330–1.
J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, p.363.
J.F. Henckel, Pyrytologie, ou Histoire naturelle de la Pyrite. Transi, from German original. Paris 1760, ch.l3,p.293.
G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749, par.9–10: ‘Opera pretium autem facturum arbitror, qui naturae effecta ex subterraneis eruta diligentius conférât cum foetibus laboratoriorum (sic enim Chymicorum officinas vocamus) quando mira persaepe in ratis et factis similitudo apparet.’ Also sect.9, p. 18, sect. 10, p.28.
G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, sect. 10, p.22: ‘cui montes sunt pro Alembicis, Vulcani pro furnis.’
G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, sect.9, p. 18: ‘neque enim aliud est natura, quam ars quaedam magna, nee semper toto génère a nativis factitia distinguuntur; nec refert eandemne rem Daedalus aliquis vulcanius in furno invenibus an lapicida ac terrae visceribus proférât in lucem.’
Nicolas Leblanc, De la Cristallotechnie, ou Essai sur les Phénomènes de la Cristallisation … Paris, an X — 1802. Leblanc was the inventor of the industrial process for making soda (1791 — 92, p.72).
G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, p.65; cfp.VIII.
G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, $.82.
G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, p.VI-II.
G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, p.X.
G.G. Leibniz, Protogaea, sive de Prima Facie Telluris Antiquissimae Historiae Vestigiis in ipsis Naturae Monumentis Dissertatio. Göttingae 1749,, p.73.
Gay-Lussac, ‘Réflexions sur les Volcans’, in: Ann. Chim. Phys. 22 (1823), pp.415–429.
E. Mitscherlich, ‘über künstliche Krystalle von Eisenoxyd’, in: Ann. der Physik und Chemie 1829, pp.630–632.
Letter quoted by K.C. von Leonhard, Hüttenerzeugnisse und andere auf künstlichem Wege gebildete Mineralien als Stütz-Puncte geologischer Hypothesen. Stuttgart 1858, p.63.
C.W.C. Fuchs, ‘Die künstlich dargestellten Mineralien …’, in: Natuurkundige Verhandelingen der Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen. 3e reeks dl.I, Haarlem 1872, p.3.
Cf H. de Sénarmont, ‘Expériences sur la Formation des Minéraux par Voie humide dans les Gîtes métallifères concrétionnés’, in: Comptes Rendus Ac. Sei 32 (1851), p.409.
Durocher, Comptes Rendus Ac. Sei 32 (1851), p.8: ‘C’est en combinant les résultats obtenus en laboratoire avec l’étude géologique des caractères propres aux divers gîtes, que l’on peut apprécier la manière dont ces phénomènes se sont passés dans l’intérieur de la terre.’
J. Hall, Transact. RSE 3 (1790), pp.9–11; ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, in: Transact. RSE 5(1798),p.43,59.
The phenomenon of devitrification of glass had been observed before, e.g. by Reaumur, but it had not been recognized as ‘cristallisation’ (Cf Dartigues, ‘Mémoire sur la Dévitrification du Verre’, in: J. d. Physique 59 (1804), p.6–8).
J. Hutton, Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations, Vol.1, Edinburgh 1795, p.25. Quoted by Hall, ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, Trans. RSE 5 (1798), p.45.
Hall, ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, p.45.
J.F. d’Aubuisson de Voisins, Traité de Géognosie, Vol.I, Strasbourg-Paris 1814, pp.XXX-XXXI.
Hall, ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, pp.48, 56, 59,43,45.
Hall, ‘Experiments on Whimstone and Lava’, p.6S.
Hall, Transact. RSE6(\805), or 5 (1802), p.74.
Hall, Transact. RSE6, p.76.
J. Hall, ‘Account of a Series of Experiments, Shewing the Effects of Compression in Modifying the Action of Heat’, in: Transact. RSE 6(1812).
Ibidem, pp.152, 173.
Gregory Watt, ‘Observations on Basalt, and on the Transition from the Vitreous to the Stony Texture, which Occurs in the Gradual Refrigeration of Melted Basalt; with some Geological Remarks’, in: Phil. Trans. London (1804), pt.II, pp.279 ff.
Dartigues, ‘Mémoire sur la Dévitrification du Verre. Et les Phénomènes qui arrivent pendant sa Cristallisation’, in: J. d. Physique 59 (1804), p.13.
Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, pp.409–470.
Ibidem, pAil.
Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, p.418.
Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, p.453.
Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, p.459.
Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action du Feu dans les Volcans, sur divers Rapports entre leurs Produits, ceux de nos Fourneaux, les Météorites, et les Roches primitives’, in: J. d. Phys. 60 (1805), an XIII, pM2.
J.A.L. Hausmann, 10 February 1816 in the ‘Versammlung der K. Wissenschaftlichen Sozietät zu Göttingen’ (quoted by Von Leonhard in: Hüttenerzeugnisse).
Von Leonhard, Hüttenerzeugnisse.
Fleuriau de Bellevue, ‘Mémoire sur l’Action’, p.411.
Th. Scheerer, ‘Discussion sur la Nature Plutonique du Granite et des Silicates cristallisés qui s’y rallient’, in: Bull. Soc. Géol. de France 4, pp.468–496. Cf K.A.von Zittel, Geschichte der Geologie und der Paléontologie. München 1899, p.749. See also: Th. Scheerer, Der Paramorphismus, Braunschweig 1854.
Daubrée, études et Experiences synthétiques sur le Métamorphisme et sur la Formation des Roches cristallisées. Paris 1859.
Daubrée, études et Experiences synthétiques sur le Métamorphisme et sur la Formation des Roches cristallisées, p.IX.
Daubrée, études et Experiences synthétiques sur le Métamorphisme et sur la Formation des Roches cristallisées, p.U3-\l5.
Daubrée, études et Experiences synthétiques sur le Métamorphisme et sur la Formation des Roches cristallisées, p. 147. It should be noticed that it had long been recognized that the same minerals and rocks could have dissimilar origins. As H.H. Read (The Granite Controversy. London 1957) put it: ’there are granites and granites.’
F. Fouqué and Michel Levy, Synthèse des Minéraux et des Roches, Paris 1882, p.6: ‘… l’union de la cristallographie, de la chimie et de la géologie … cette triple alliance.’
F. Fouqué and Michel Levy, Synthèse des Minéraux et des Roches, Paris 1882, p.6: ‘… l’union de la cristallographie, de la chimie et de la géologie … cette triple alliance, p.63.
N. Desmarest, ‘Sur l’Origine et la Nature du Basalte à grandes Colonnes polygones, déterminées par l’Histoire naturelle de cette Pierre, observée en Auvergne’, in: Mém. Acad. Sei. Paris 1771, 87 (1774), pp.705–775. It is interesting that this staunch defender of the igneous (volcanic) origin of basalt maintained, against Hutton, the neptunistic conception of the origin of granite. See: Encyclopédie Méthodique, Vol.1, Paris, an III (1794), pp.749, 752, 756.
A.F. Fourcroy, Système des Connaissances chimiques, et leurs Applications aux Phénomènes de la Nature et de l’Art. Vol.VII, Paris, an IX, sect.7, pp.5–7, 54–55.
Thenard, Traité de Chimie élémentaire théorique et pratique, Vol.III, 3.éd. Paris 1821, pp.3–4.
F. von Kobell, Vergleichende Betrachtungen über die Mannigfaltigkeit in der organischen und anorganischen Natur. München 1836, p.12. Lamarck went much further: according to his ‘pyrotic theory’ all compounds tend to disintegrate into their components; the existence of composite bodies is due to their organic origin. The ‘pouvoir de la vie’ is a force acting against the general ‘tendance de la nature’ to decomposition (J.B. Lamarck, Réfutation de la Théorie pneumatique ou de lanouvelle Doctrine des Chimistes modernes. Paris an IV, p. 12). Also: J.B. Lamarck, Recherches sur les Causes des principaux Faits physiques. Paris an II (1795), Vol.II, p.273, 289, 27. Also: J.B. Lamarck, Hydrogéologie, Paris an X, p. 100: ‘…. les Principes de tout composé quelconque ont une tendance à se dégager’. ‘L’action organique des corps vivans forme sans cesse des combinaisons qui n’eussent jamais existé sans cette cause’ (pp. 105, 117).
F. Wöhler, ‘über die künstliche Bildung von Harnstoff’, in: Pogg. Ann. Phys. 12 (1828), p.25. Cf Wöhler to Berzelius, 22 February 1828 (quoted by C. Graebe, Geschichte der organischen Chemie I, Berlin 1920, p.55).
Ch. Gerhardt, Précis de Chimie organique, Vol.I, Paris 1844, pp. 1–3.
Ch. Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie organique, Vol.I, Paris 1853, p.l.
Ch. Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie organique, Vol.I,p.l.
Ch. Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie organique, Vol.I, p.4.
Ch. Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie organique, Vol.I, p.3.
R. Hooykaas, ‘Die Chemie in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts’, in: Technikgeschichte 33, nr. 1(1966), pp. 1–24.
J.F. Daniell, An Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy. 2. ed., London 1843, p.3.
In: Marcellin Berthelot, Science et Philosophie. Paris 1886, p.66.
In: Marcellin Berthelot, Science et Philosophie. Paris 1886, p.67.
In: Marcellin Berthelot, Science et Philosophie. Paris 1886, p.64.
Galileo Galilei, Discorsi (1638). Quoted from —, Discourses and Demonstrations Touching Two New Sciences In: Thomas Salusbury, Mathematical Collections and Translations, Vol.II, London 1665, p.3.
A.L. Lavoisier, Traité de Chimie, 2. ed., Vol.I, Paris 1793, p.69.
Ptolemy, The Almagest, Bk.XIII, ch.2. Quoted after the translation in ed. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago 1952, p.429
Willem Jansz. Blaeu, Tweevoudigh Onderwijs van de Hemelsche en Aerdsche Globen; Het een na de Meyning van Ptolemeus met een vasten Aerdkloot; Het ander na de natuerlijcke Stelling van N. Copernicus met een loopenden Aerdkloot. Amsterdam: Joan. Blaeu 1666. The Latin translation appeared as: Philolai, sive Dissertationis de Vero Systemate Mundi (4 vols.). Amsterdam: Guil. & Iohannem Blaeu 1639. See also chapter VI, ‘And the Sun stood still’.
Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, p.12: ‘… forma sphaerica perfectissime et cum terra globosa maxime consentit.’
Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, p. 13.
Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3.VI,ch.l,ch.4.
Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, lib.VI, ch.4, p.223: ‘Omitto quod Petrus Peregrinus constanter affirmât, terrellam … moved circulariter intégra volutatione 24 horis! Quod tarnen nobis adhuc videre non contigit.’
Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, lib.II, ch.2, p.60: ‘The electric motion is the motion of conservation of matter; the magnet motion is that of arrangement and order. The matter of the terrestrial globe is brought together and held together by itself electrically. The earth’s globe is directed and revolved magnetical.’
Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, lib.IV,ch.2,p.l55.
Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, Bk.II,ch.35,p.l03.
Gulielmus Gilbertus, De Magnete, Londini 1600, Bk.I, ch.3, lib.VI, ch.4, pp.223–224.
Beeckman had seen this through Andreas Colvius (Kolff), the Reformed minister in the Netherlands’ embassy in Venice. The work was not printed before 1780, but the theory was mentioned in Galileo’s Dialogues on the Two World Systems (1632). Cf ed. Salusbury, Vol.1, Dialogue IV, p.380.
C. de Waard ed., Journal tenu par Isaac Beeckman, Vol.III, Den Haag 1945, p.206 (12 April 1631). Beeckman proposed to make groves on the surface, representing the Atlantic Ocean, in order to check whether the revolutions cause ebb and flow twice every 24 hours. It should be noticed that Galileo rejected the explanation by influence of the moon and the sun, and that he even criticized Kepler for adhering to such a non-mechanical explanation: ‘I more wonder at Kepler than any of the rest, who being of a free and piercing wit, and having the motion ascribed to the Earth, before him, hath for all that given his ear and consent to the Moon’s predominancy over the Water, and to occult properties and such like trifles’ (Dialogue IV, ed. Salusbury, Vol.1, p.422). Descartes, too, wanted a mechanistic explanation which implied low tide when, in fact, there is high tide. Both cases show that mechanicists who scorned ‘occult qualities’ were led to absurdities no less than those they rejected.
Aristotle, Meteor ologica, Bk.II, ch.8, 367al0.
Albertus Magnus, Meteororum, Bk.III, tr.2, ch.17: ‘Dico autem qualitatem moventem caliditatem solam, cujus exemplum in artificialibus sit … generatur vapor in vase, quern fortificatum retro erumpit per alterum foramen obstructum: et si irrumpit superius, longe projicit aquam sparsam in ignem, et impetu vaporis projicit … carbones et cineres calidos longe ab igne super circumstantia loca…’
Nicolas Lémery, Mém. Acad. Royale d. Sciences (1700), pp.131 ff.
‘Extrait de quelques Lettres du Docteur Paccard, Sur les Causes … de la Direction oblique perpendiculaire, horizontale des Couches ornées et apparentes, etc., et sur la Manière d’imiter artificiellement les Mines’, in: Observations sur la Physique de Rozier et Mongez 18 (1781), pp.184–192.
‘Extrait de quelques Lettres du Docteur Paccard, Sur les Causes … de la Direction oblique perpendiculaire, horizontale des Couches ornées et apparentes, etc., et sur la Manière d’imiter artificiellement les Mines’, in: Observations sur la Physique de Rozier et Mongez 18 (1781),, p. 186.
‘Extrait de quelques Lettres du Docteur Paccard, Sur les Causes … de la Direction oblique perpendiculaire, horizontale des Couches ornées et apparentes, etc., et sur la Manière d’imiter artificiellement les Mines’, in: Observations sur la Physique de Rozier et Mongez 18 (1781),, pp. 187–189.
‘Extrait de quelques Lettres du Docteur Paccard, Sur les Causes … de la Direction oblique perpendiculaire, horizontale des Couches ornées et apparentes, etc., et sur la Manière d’imiter artificiellement les Mines’, in: Observations sur la Physique de Rozier et Mongez 18 (1781),, p.\92.
Cf Bailey Willis, ‘The Mechanics of the Appalachian Structure’, in: U.S. Geol. Survey, 3d Annual Report, Washington 1893, pp.210–283.
A. Favre, Comptes Rendus Ac. Sei. 86 (1878), pp. 1092–1094.
A. Daubrée, études synthétiques de Géologie expérimentale. Paris 1879, ch.IV, p.288.
A. Daubrée, études synthétiques de Géologie expérimentale. Paris 1879, ch.IV, p.294.
L. de Launay, La Science géologique, ses Méthodes, ses Résultats, ses Problèmes, son Histoire. 2. ed., Paris 1913, pp.27–28.
James David Forbes (20 April 1809 — 11 December 1868) was professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh 1833 — 1859; Principal of United College St Andrews 1859 — 1868. After 1840 his main interest shifted from physics to geology. He discovered the polarization and double refraction of radiant heat, and investigated the movements and structure of glaciers (Alps, Norway) and their causes.
J.D. Forbes, Travels through the Alps of Savoy. Edinburgh 1893, p.365.
J.D. Forbes, ‘Experiments on the Flow of Plastic Bodies and Observations on the Phenomena of Lava Streams’, in: Philosophical Transactions 1846; quoted from: J.D. Forbes, Occasional Papers, Edinburgh 1859,XI,p.77.
J.D. Forbes, ‘Experiments on the Flow of Plastic Bodies and Observations on the Phenomena of Lava Streams’, in: Philosophical Transactions 1846; quoted from: J.D. Forbes, Occasional Papers, Edinburgh 1859,XI, p.78.
J.D. Forbes, ‘Experiments on the Flow of Plastic Bodies and Observations on the Phenomena of Lava Streams’, in: Philosophical Transactions 1846; quoted from: J.D. Forbes, Occasional Papers, Edinburgh 1859,XI, p.82.
Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire, in: Mém. Ac. d. Sei. Paris 12 (1832), p.80.
Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire, in: Mém. Ac. d. Sei. Paris 12 (1832), p.82.
Qf Hooykaas, Natural Law and Divine Miracle. A Historical-Critical Study of the Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology and Theology. Leiden 4959, 21963, pp.117–118. Also R. Hooykaas, Continuité et Discontinuité en Géologie et Biologie, Paris 1970, pp.202–203.
Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire, Mém. Musée Hist. Naturelle 17 (1828), p.213.
Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. London 1859, ch.3, p.61.
J.D. Forbes, ‘Theoretical Investigations, Intended to Illustrate the Phenomena of Polarisation’, in: Suppl. Encyclop. Britt. (1823), p.415.
ijQ form wkat Qauss caiieci a ‘construirbare Vorstellung’ of the invisible process of electrical action is the great desideratum in this part of science’ (Nature 11 (1874) (The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. W.D. Niven ed. London 1890, Vol.11, p.419)).
Maxwell, ‘On Faraday’s Lines of Force’, in: Transact. Cambr. Phil SocAO (1855–56) pt I (Scientific Papers I, p. 155).
Maxwell, ‘On Faraday’s Lines of Force’, in: Transact. Cambr. Phil SocAO (1855–56) pt I (Scientific Papers I, p. 160.
Maxwell, ‘On Physical Lines of Force’, in: Phil. Mag. 21 (1861) and 23 (1862) (The theory of molecular vortices applied to electric currents); Scientific Papers I, pp.468 ff.
Maxwell himself called his conception ‘somewhat awkward’ (Scientific Papers II, p.486).
Ibidem.
William Thomson, ‘Steps towards a Kinetic Theory of Matter’, in: Brit. Assoc. Report 1884. Quoted from: W. Thomson, Popular Lectures and Addresses, Vol.1, London 1889, pp. 235–236.
Ibidem, p.240.
W. Thomson, Mathematical and Physical Papers, Vol.III, London 1890, pp.505–507.
Cf S.P. Thompson, The Life of William Thomson, Vol.11, London 1910, p.830. With Thomson the confidence in mechanical models competed with the acknowledgement that as yet no adequate models and theories had been formed. He was concerned that ‘the scales will fall from our eyes; that we shall look on things in a different way — when that which is now a difficulty will be the only common sense and intelligible way of looking at the subject’ (Thomson, Math, and Phys. Papers, Vol.III, p.511;cfp.465).
Thomson, ibidem, p.484.
O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.202.
O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.206.
O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.59.
O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.66.
O.J. Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, London 1892, ch.X (Mechanical models of a magnetic field), p.67.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.13.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.44.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.35.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.35.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.44.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.45.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, pp.46–48.
Ludwig Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichtes. Tl.II, Leipzig 1893, p.49.
Maxwell, Brit. Assoc. Reports, Liverpool 1870; Scientific Papers II, p.219.
Lodge, Modern Views on Electricity, p.67.
Maxwell, ‘On Faraday’s Lines of Force’ (Scientific Papers I, p. 156).
Maxwell, ‘Address Math. Phys. Section Brit. Assoc 1870’; Scientific Papers II, p.220.
James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p. 141.
James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.142.
James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.146.
James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.148.
James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.149.
James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge 1930, p.127.
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Hooykaas, R. (1999). Works of Nature, Works of Art. In: Fact, Faith and Fiction in the Development of Science. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol 205. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9295-6_10
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