Abstract
In all the countries studied, pre-school education, while remaining optional, is today systematically organised before the beginning of elementary schooling. Attendance at these establishments is generally from the age of 3 up to compulsory school age, i.e. three or four years. In addition to their social role (care of young children) these establishments have officially defined educational aims, which are regarded as increasingly important for the children’s development. Table 6 shows the present duration of pre-school attendance.
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E.g. The Federal Republic of Germany and Sweden.
Four years in rural areas and seven years in urban areas.
Subject to the existence of certain private establishments with special curricula, such as the preparatory schools in the United Kingdom.
Six years in the City-States.
Or even three years in U.S.S.R. under current reforms.
In all States which retain the old organisation of studies.
Except, in the United States, for those States which have retained the eight year primary school.
The first secondary cycle, in fact, became general in U.S.S.R. only from 1949 onwards, when the seven year compulsory schooling was extended to the rural areas.
In the Länder where the duration of the elementary cycle is four years.
With the obligation in certain countries, as already mentioned, to continue part-time education up to 17 or 18.
In contrast with the “short” schooling discussed below.
The duration of full secondary studies allows for the duration of the elementary cycle (see Table 8).
In France, since the Second World War and in Belgium since 1957, teacher training pupils have taken the secondary school leaving examination; in Italy and the Netherlands general studies in teacher training schools lead to a special certificate.
The de facto situation of the Soviet reformers in 1918 was not appreciably different owing to the backwardness of primary and second ry schooling in Russia at that date.
If only by advice to their families.
Unlike U.S.S.R. in 1918 or Japan in 1947.
Itself, moreover, encouraged by the growing supply resulting from the efforts of the authorities and the increased number of scholarships.
It is true that the transitional period may be a long one.
And who have been trained at a much higher level since 1945.
Except in the United States as elective subjects.
Promotion from class to class, however, is not automatic in the secondary classes, as it is in the elementary classes and a small percentage of pupils with low marks in certain subjects has to repeat the year.
Classroom work is supplemented in the high schools by numerous optional extracurricular activities.
A credit is awarded when a pupil obtains at least a “D” in a descending scale of marks, A, B, C, D, E.
9% in 1968.
Act of 24 December, 1958, on strengthening the links between school and working life.
The emphasis being laid on certain subjects such as science and mathematics, the application of the scientific principles studied to production, and the organisation of practical manual work related to scientific and technological problems.
The percentage of success seems extremely high.
Generally held twice a week for an hour and a half or two hours.
Secondary schools specialising in languages (500 for the whole of the U.S.S.R.) have a special organisation; the study of foreign languages begins with the 1st or 2nd elementary class; the language timetable is additional to the normal timetable.
These secondary schools or classes specialising in mathematics, or, more subsidiarily, in physical and natural sciences, are organised at the level of the 9th and 10th classes, and recruitment is generally highly selective, either on examination or on outstanding results in the final examination after the 8th class, or by success in the “School Olympiads” (see note 37).
Competitions organised at several successive levels for the most gifted pupils.
Special institutions coming under the education authorities which work outside normal school hours for the benefit of children attracted by science and technology.
The enterprises grant the necessary facilities.
Subject to special education for handicapped children of all categories.
The private schools generally hold an entrance examination.
Automatic promotion from class to class.
Periods of 50 minutes.
Pupils may choose either a foreign language (foreign languages are not a compulsory subject) or two other subjects.
In 1950 Parliament adopted the principle of a nine-year basic school, the organisation of which was to be the subject of study and experiment before the final solution was adopted.
And although English is taught from intermediate level.
Each period lasts 45 minutes.
Four periods in the 7th Class, three in 8th and four in 9th.
Except for the liceo classico where entrance is subject to an examination in Latin. 59 The qualifications of middle school teachers (régents) are, however, different from those of teachers in Lycées and Athénées.
In a score or so middle schools, however, an “observation and guidance cycle” has been introduced experimentally since 1959 in which the traditional sections are abolished; pupils have a certain number of options (Latin, technology) but are never isolated from each other by these choices.
Under article 5 of the Decree of 6 January, 1959, terminal education completes compulsory schooling by “two years general education of a concrete character” (after the observation cycle).
Decree of 3 August, 1963.
In the scarsely populated rural areas the school map may provide for the maintenance of first cycle establishments of the C.E.G. type.
With specialised university-educated teachers.
With teachers from the C.E.G.
With teachers holding a special proficiency certificate.
Another innovation was to increase the weekly timetable of physical education and sports from two to five hours.
Section III is characterised by an increased timetable in French, the sciences of observation and manual work.
Pupils may choose one of the other subjects as an optional subject in addition to the compulsory elective subject.
These baccalaurdats are prepared in the technical Lycées or sections.
The secondary school systems in Scotland and Northern Ireland are not exactly the same.
In principle, secondary education should be provided in independent establishments. For a long time, however, elementary and secondary classes were combined in “all age schools.” Their number was reduced to 32 in 1968–69 with 7,300 pupils.
See note (6) to Table 9 on the Public Schools.
The first (O level) examination is taken on completing the 5th form, and the second (A level) two years later, after two years in the 6th form.
Candidates can take one to eight subjects at O level and one to five at A level; at O level, certain basic subjects (English, mathematics) are compulsory.
In 1968–69 out of 220,000 sixth form pupils in England and Wales, about 15,300 (7%) were in modern schools.
In Scotland, the first three secondary classes are organised in common schools (junior secondary schools) and the second five-year cycle prepares for the terminal examination (Scottish leaving certificate).
In 1968–69 the enrolment ratio at 15 (age 15–16) already reached 69% (Source: Statistics of Education, 1968, Vol. 1).
This examination is organised by subjects on the same principles as the G.C.E. Results are graded in five grades (I to V): Grade I is equivalent to the G.C.E. (0) and Grade IV to the average capacity of a group of sixteen-year-olds.
Four years 16–10) in the eight Länder and six years (6–12) in the City-States.
In the City-States, this cycle is known as the “`practical section’ (Praktischer Zweig) of the second cycle of compulsory schooling.
One of which is optional.
Or, in all, thirteen years of general studies.
Two foreign languages are studied.
Some business schools form part of the technical schools (Berufsfachschulen, see Chapter II).
This reservation greatly limits the practical consequences of this measure, but it is explained by the big difference in the standard of teaching and curriculum.
In 1961, 0.65% of Realschulen pupils entered Gymnasia: this percentage is, however, tending to increase with the development of remove classes.
The evening Gymnasia prepare for a certificate giving access to all branches of higher education (Reifeprüfung) or to a special branch only (Reifezeugnis).
From the legal point of view the classes complémentaires are integrated in primary education; they existed experimentally before the 1963 Act.
After the six year elementary cycle.
Pupils in the classical sections may choose between Greek and English.
With various options, mathematical sciences, natural sciences, economics.
Completion of compulsory schooling.year
In these sections education of the h.a.v.o. type lasts two years after the first three years of pre-university studies or the four years of the m.a.v.o. school.
Latin may also be taught in the gymnasia; this provision was in fact the subject of lengthy discussion because it reduces the possibilities of transfer to education of the v.w.o. type; a compromise was found by the provision of “remove classes.”
to 24 classes before the resumption of the school year.
According to available statistics.
These growth percentages are not strictly comparable, since they do not always cover the same period of time.
Including, it is true, the numbers in creches, who are not taken into account in the other countries (except Sweden) but who are combined in the Soviet statistics with those in kindergartens.
In Italy, owing to the social and economic under-development of certain regions, school attendance falls off after the five classes of elementary school. In 1959–60 about 30% of children did not attend school between 11 and 14, but this lag is being absorbed very fast thanks to the implementation of the reform decided in 1962, which should very soon lead to total enrolment up to 14.
In countries where they still exist.
In some countries, however, such as the United States, promotion rules are a matter for the local education authorities and the principle of automatic promotion is not universally applied.
Children who reach the age of 6 before 31 December are admitted at the start of the school year in the autumn.
A study on the trend of repeating in French elementary classes was presented by Mr. Daniel Blot in no. 4 of the review Population of 1969 (I.N.E.D., Paris).
In the 5th classes, the diminution recorded in 1967–68 in the percentage of children two years or more behind is in all probability explained by the creation of “transition” sections (see section B) which allow promotion to the first secondary cycle without requirements of standard.
Statistics of Education, 1968, Volume 1.
It will be noted that the system of automatic promotion, when it isYproperly organised, does not rule out the consolidation in the new class, for children who are weak in certain subjects, of the study of some parts of the programme of the classâbelow, by the means of appropriate aids; this consolidation constitutes a sort of partial repeating of the programme; this procedure is obviously preferable to the waste of time involved in total repeating, but it requires appropriate organisation of teaching otherwise the system of automatic promotion may lead to serious trouble.
Naturally, in all social circles, special family circumstances may contribute towards seriously disturbing the rhythm of the children’s studies.
The data in Table 11 can usefully be compared with those of the corresponding Table in our earlier work, Education and development in Western Europe, which generally refer to the decade 1951–1961.
The variations in absolute value are shown in Table 131, Annexes I to XI.
Different enrolment ratios could be calculated by comparing enrolments in the first classes of secondary schools with the average of the two or three corresponding age groups. This second method would, in general, give slightly higher enrolment ratios, but it is harder to apply to all countries. The method adopted has the advantage of making the results really comparable, but it minimises the true volume of the flow to the secondary schools, in so far as a certain percentage of children who stay in primary school at 12 or 13 later go on to secondary school.
This approximation by the statistical branch of the London Department of Education may be falsified by the facts since it cannot be strictly forecast how the children now in the first secondary classes will behave four years later on completion of the first cycle (preparation for the G.C.E. (0)).
In public education, the classes are generally combined with the middle classes to form “multilateral” schools.
In Italy, enrolment at 12 was still not complete in 1966–67 (91.2% only).
For the United Kingdom, the percentage indicated takes account only of G.C.E. (A) with two passes, the minimum requirement for university entrance.
Italy had not yet fully benefited in 1968, at gymnasium and lycée level, from the large increase in middle school enrolments resulting from the 1962 reform.
Enrolments are often more balanced at first cycle level, but the enrolments of girls subsequently fall off.
For example, in Germany, in 1963, it amounted to 9.9% for boys and only 6.1% for girls.
Or even, in U.S.S.R., those attending vocational schools.
A large part of evening pupils in the first cycle are adults completing the eight-year school.
Part time enrolments in the second cycle amounted to 39% of the total at this level.
Some preparation is provided in full time courses.
Source: Digest of Educational Statistics, 1969, Table 8, p. 7.
Dewitt, N.S.F. 61–4o, p. 149.
Including the schools for young factory and farm workers.
Under the 1958 Act.
Similar data are not available for Sweden.
Owing to repeating, the pupils in successive classes did not all come from the initial intake in class 7.
See Table 21, p. 68 of the original work Education and Development in Western Europe.
The calculation does not allow for the number of repeaters among certificate holders and therefore partly confuses pupils from different intakes.
Assuming that the rates recorded for Germany at the beginning of the decade are maintained.
The picture is partly distorted by the fact that, for example, the quantitative development of comprehensive schools among twelve-year-olds has no effect on the numbers of sixth-formers in these establishments in the same year.
This Table confirms the estimates given in Table 18.
This is specially true for the comprehensive schools.
Source: Statistics of Education, 1967, Vol. 2: the comparison is between the total number of passes obtained and the total number of candidates for each certificate; in fact, the candidates obtaining 1, 2 or 3 passes or more must be greater than that indicated above.
For this reason the numbers in the terminal classes are much higher than the number of certificate holders for the year. In France, for example, in 1964, nearly 120,000 pupils were enrolled in the public and private terminal secondary classes, or 17% of the 17 and 18 age group: 86,000 only — including external candidates — passed the baccalauréat, or 12.3% of the age group.
In 1968–69 the average enrolment ratio in class 6 (without the transitional classes) reached 75.7%; this rate was well above that (62.0%) shown in Table 18 for the enrolment of twelve-year-olds in 1967–68. The difference is explained by the grouping in class 6 of children of different ages.
In 1959, the average enrolment ratio from 12 to 17 in long secondary education varied for boys from 9.4% (Drenthe) to 18.2% (Utrecht) and for girls from 5.8% (Drenthe) to 13.7% (Noord-Holland).
This comparison gives a reliable picture of the relative development of the terminal cycle on condition that the variations in birthrates for the age groups considered are approximately the same in the different republics.
DeWitt, op.cit., p. 145.
Which seems to be established by the fact that 57% of enrolments in the four elementary classes are in rural schools.
Since the administrative subdivisions are very vast, the regional averages may mask wider local disparities.
Unlike primary schools, which can be organised in very small units.
Depending on the political regime and the more or less restrictive character of educational tradition.
In the same occupational environment, the statistics show substantial differences in secondary education according to the religion and race of the parents.
As for example in Belgium.
See, for example Educational Policy and Planning in the Netherlands, O.E.C.D., Paris, 1967, pp. 69 and following.
Taking the Lycées only in France; the divergence would be less marked (1:3) if allowance were made for access to the C.E.G. which, as already noted offer extensive access to the second secondary cycle.
Recruitment for the U.L.O. schools (upper primary schools) draws much more on the lower social strata. This is confirmed for France by the percentages given in Table 32 for the C.E.G.
For England, see Floud, Halsey and Martin, op.cit.,(Table 31).
The absence of industrial outlets in certain regions encourages long secondary education in preparation for civil service careers; this is especially so in the départements in the South of France.
The same comment could be made in the light of statistics for the city of Middlesbrough and for Germany, not given here.
For Japan, statistics on the promotion rate of first cycle certificate holders to the higher secondary cycle according to social background, shows relatively slight disparities (55 to 97%); these statistics, however, do not distinguish between the general sections and the technical sections of the second cycle.
Secondary schools for girls which did not prepare for the university were also organised in most countries.
Whose curriculum, in the first classes is more or less closely matched with that of short education.
The ways in which this selection is made, however, are still very diverse, a fact which indicates the difficulty of the problem.
For the years of complementary general education.
The families of farm and factory workers are bigger than the average.
For the same reason, primary schoolteachers hesitate to advise long secondary education.
The French C.E.G., which act as a clearing house between the second secondary cycle and the vocational and technical schools are, for this reason, favoured by working class families.
The importance of this aspect of secondary schooling should not be over-estimated in our modern society, where it is steadily diminishing
The results of the study by the Institut des Sciences humaines appliquées, University of Bordeaux, directed by M. Boudon and M. Bourricaud under the title Les choix des Lycéens (stencilled, July, 1968) confirms the capital importance of these factors at the time of making options on the completion of the first secondary cycle (cf. pages 88 and following).
Assessed in relation to the occupation of grandparents, the democratisation of education seems much more satisfactory.
Girard, Alain and Bastide, Henri, “Orientation et sélection scolaire: cinq années d’une promotion de la fin du cycle élémentaire à l’entrée dans le 2ème cycle du second degré”, Review Population, nos. I and 2, 1969, INED, Paris, pp. 201 to 205.
On the other hand, it is certain that, at the moment of option for entry into secondary school (in countries where this option still applies) this cultural factor specific to the working classes constitutes, as we have said, one of the factors of abstention.
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Poignant, R. (1973). The Organisation and State of Development of General Primary and Secondary Education. In: Education in the Industrialised Countries. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-7592-8_2
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