Abstract
The horizons of the world in which the Atoni live and within which formerly nearly all social relations were confined, excepting some trade relations via the coast or via itinerant Chinese traders, were restricted to the princedom. The only relations with the external world were those which resulted from marriages which princes might sometimes make with princesses of royal lineages of other princedoms. Wars might also induce people to cross the borders of another princedom, namely as attackers in a headhunting raid or as refugees seeking admission to another political community. The setting for the Atom’s day to day life, however, was the village (kuan), consisting of a number of hamlets, also called kuan.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Cunningham, 1962, pp. 269–328.
In Village Communities in Modern Indonesia, Koentjaraningrat, Ed. Cornell University Press, 1967, pp. 63–89.
Cunningham, 1962, pp. 100–104. The following has been taken from him as far as the facts are concerned.
Cunningham refers, incorrectly so in this context, to the distinction between time feto and ume mone in affinal alliances, 1962, pp. 252–258. But in 1970 I discovered that it is an olif-tataf (younger and elder brother) relation: “because we are one” they told me.
From the Portuguese capitâo.
Communication Middelkoop. Cf. p. 205, below.
From the Portuguese coronel.
The kapitan is one of the four “great fathers” (amaf naek) enumerated in A. 7. It is primarily his people who have assembled around the altar (tola naek), and only some of them are the subjects of the Lord (Usif) with whom he is affiliated but who, as we shall see later, originally — that is to say, in the first place — belonged to the sphere of the palace of the ruler.
To provide for. The word used here is tnela, which actually means “to settle”. The dash following the Timorese word ma indicates that the part of the sentence following it is recited by the entire group.
The son of heaven (nenba ankina), i.e. the ruler, who is often called neno ana or neon ana = son of heaven. As it is used in parallelism with “son of the moon” here, nenba ankina may also be translated with “son of the sun”, although the usual word for sun is manas.
A koko is a sacred (le’u) animal. It is said in Insana to be a kind of bush-fowl. Misfortune, disease and even death will strike the man who touches a koko or even walks on a feather which it has dropped. Nai Bate (Lord Bate) is also a sacred animal, the size of a small pig, according to my informants in Insana. According to Middelkoop there is a kok manu (a koko fowl) and a kok kauna, a kind of snake koko. It could be a flying lizard. And Nai Bate is the python which was Sonba’i’s primeval ancestor. Hence the koko and the bate represent all that is sacred (le’u) and awe-inspiring in heaven and on earth. Cf. p. 148 above.
As in the invocation to the ancestors of the natal lineage, in the expression “my female ancestor(s), my male ancestors” the female ancestors are usually mentioned first, similarly the great fathers (amaf naek) are called “mother-father” in this line. The ancestors include all the female ancestors who have been admitted to the nono, i.e. the sphere charged with mystical power, of the natal clan. When questioned about this, the Atoni would (sometimes) say this explicitly, although frequently the only answer would be a translation of the words. The disadvantage of questioning informants is that the answer is bound to be a subjective explanation and rationalization.
These are the names of the four clans of the “great fathers”. If we refer to the political community as a whole as a “tribe”, they are, in pairs, the “fathers” of the two halves outside the sphere of the palace (sonaf). However, the term “tribe” with reference to this political community is not correct, as it is always part of a larger realm, no matter how slight the latter’s political significance may have been (concerning the use of the word “tribe”, see Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer, 1940, p. 5).
The lords of the land (paha tuana; pah = land, tua = lord; cf. Indon. tuan). A woman can never be tuaf. Although “lords of the land”, they have no land tenure rights in the strict sense of the word — the term refers to their authority to rule over a particular area.
Usif; the word used is Uisma, or sometimes Uisfini or Uisfina, the plural of Usif (lord), which can itself be used as a plural form. These are the four usif besides Uisfinit, the supreme lord, who are each affiliated with one of the four “great fathers”. When referring to these four Uisma we shall not translate the title, but keep the word Usif. Paha tuana and Uisma stand in parallelism, and both words refer to the Usif, therefore.
That which is piled up (corn and rice) should no more be mentioned here than in the agricultural ritual.
They take receipt of the gifts of homage. The masculine epithet is mentioned first in this line, but in line 41 they are again referred to as “the old women, the old men”.
Nunu, Indon. waringin, the great banyan, of which there are several varieties. This nunu is situated close to an oe le’u or sacred source. Lete — alstonia scholaris, Indon. taduk. These shade-trees are symbolic of the ruler, of whom it is said: Naneom, namaf, (he who gives shade, who gives shelter). At Fatu Nai Suan, a ritual centre of Sonba’i, these two trees grow so close together that they have become intertwined as a visible symbol of the nature of ruler-ship. Middelkoop, 1949, p. 23.
These are the four doorkeepers at the two place doors. This Banusu is therefore not the same as the amaf naek (A. 7).
The dance of the women (bidu), the dance of the warriors (psoöt), which is accompanied by drums beaten by women.
Kolnel Bala. Kolnel derives from the title coronel which was given them by the Portuguese. Bala means “to prepare”. The meaning of Kolnel Bala is “he who prepares”, “he who makes ready”. When used in the expression “in ume — in balan” it means “domain” (his house, his domain). Hence Kolnel Bala is the majordomo. By “stand properly lined up” is meant that they look after the guests under Kolnel Bala’s supervision.
Naiha ma kato ha. Nai = Lord, masculine; Nain — territory; naidjan (with dj acting as connective consonant) = his territory; naidjuf = the (most prominent) clan of the area (uf = tribe) — this is also used with reference to the ruler as the head of the kingdom; kato = female spouse, only used of royal persons. In this expression nai always comes first, but here too nai — kato refers only to the four lords. There is no connection between this word and the word nai meaning grandfather, ancestor. Cunningham, 1962, p. 102, confuses them.
Guests are always offered sirih pinang first.
The spoons and forks are not made of silver, but the word silver (noni) symbolizes the reverence with which an usif should be treated. In respect of the ruler the word “gold” (mnatu) is used. Cf. Middelkoop, 1939, p. 45. “Spoon” and “plate” are metaphors for the rice and meat of the meal offered them. In this case too the objects themselves are not mentioned lest the guests be embarrassed.
See p. 66, note 76, above.
Large basket (sokal) for corn and smaller basket (nebe) for rice. The poni is the largest basket, with a capacity of 60–100 kilogrammes, i.e. one pikul (62.5 kg.) or more. The harvest is carried from the gardens to the villages in it, hence the name poni pah (the (large) baskets of the land) for the harvest gifts. A sokal has a volume of approx. half a pikul (25–30 kg.). A kaut or katu is half of this, and a nebe is no more than 5–7 kg., although the Atoni say that it is one eighth of a poni.
Tof hau mnanu, ben hau mnanu, designates their function as major custodians of the land (tobe naek), the leaders of the agricultural ritual and therefore the bringers of the poni pah; tof a = weeding-hook, benas = matchet.
The harvest has been successful.
Atau-pah, the defender of the land (realm); Ana’-pah, the guardian of thé realm; Afen-pah, he who wipes out the people (the enemy). Although the primary meaning of pah is “land”, it can also mean “people”, e.g. in the vocative case; Abain-pah, he who renders the land fertile. They are the great sacrificers and ritual experts.
Cf. A. 16. Here they line themselves up in preparation for the sacrifice for apinat, aklahat, the Brilliant one, the Fiery One, i.e. the Lord of Heaven or Uis Neno. Cf. p. 143 above.
During sacrificing a lighted torch of dammar is required to illuminate the le’u (sacred place for sacrificing) or, as it is sometimes called, the tola (the wooden pole placed between the altar stones).
Bunuh — curse; see p. 74 above. Menas — disease.
Here, in contrast to 1. 23, the four “great fathers” are mentioned in pairs, which reveals the tendency towards binary classification. In ordinary usage they are always referred to thus.
Mina — shiny, i.e. of the glossy skin of a sleek, healthy body. Coconut oil is rubbed into the skin to make it shiny.
The sacred places of origin of the four quarters of the realm.
Deceased person (nitu), who lives on as a death spirit (nitu). Hidden power (le’u).
This implies the thought that the deceased or ancestors are actually present and that the le’u is a tutelary power. But nitu can also be dangerous, and like le’u are always so in a sense.
Only the word heli (to cut) is used. Heli tua means to tap the juice of the lontar palm; heli oni means to cut honey out of nests in trees. Here the words “to weed and to cut” refer to the totality of the agricultural produce.
It is apparent from this that the atupas or neno ana (son of heaven) to whom the harvest gifts are offered is the representative of the ancestors as well, and also of the hidden forces (le’u) which reign through him. In the sacrifice to the Lord of Heaven the harvest gifts are “returned” to him.
The harvest gifts, corn and rice, which are not supposed to be mentioned by name. This was described as Kolnel Bala’s speech of thanks. Perhaps it should rather be regarded as a solemn assurance, given on behalf of the atupas, that the gifts of homage have been received in good order.
Corn and rice, see note 26.
Prepared, that is to say, people have toiled to grow them.
Cf. the Presentation, A. 38, The same word (nenu = to care) is used there, though causatively. May He, the son of heaven, eat without care so that the forces of the hidden world, the representative of which he is, may not give cause for anxiety.
Liurai-Sonba’i — the pair of sovereign rulers; here, however, it refers to the atupas. The close connection between the atupas and Liurai-Sonba’i is visible in his palace (sonaf), where one pillar in the eastern side is called Liurai, and one in the western side Sonba’i — Liurai lived in the east and Sonba’i in the west. This also fits in with the categories of superordinate and subordinate, as the east is mone (masculine) and as such superior to the west, which is feto (feminine). This designation also expresses that he is the origin of rice and corn, which are also referred to as Liurai-Sonba’i (see agricultural ritual, p. 70).
The acknowledgement of the receipt of the gifts turns into a warning here.
A reference to difficulties and disasters, i.e. the prayer asks that the cosmic order be preserved.
Cf. presentation of harvest gifts, A. 14. There they are the palace guards, here they are called the palace attendants who are also responsible for the torches, as ritual feasts are always held in the evenings.
Cf. A. 11. There it is their task to take receipt of the harvest gifts, while here they are the highest counsellors, who must give the atupas their impartial advice in legal matters. They pay no heed to flattery or gossip, and give an unbiased opinion, hence the epithet “deaf ears, blind eyes” (Juke tono, mata folo).
Now that the atupas has died, the harvest has as it were left the garden, the garden is abandoned and the wooden fences and bamboo palings are mouldering: in other words, the counsellors no longer have a function.
Cf. A. 27, B. 16. There their function was that of great sacrificers and ritual experts, here they appear as the chief great warriors. Great faces, great eyes (huma naek, mata naek) is the general epithet for great warriors.
Cf. A. 22. There the major custodians of the land, Hitu-Taboi, Saidjao-Banusu, are the lords of the sacrificial baskets (called tobe and kaliii). Indirectly the term is also applicable to Us Taolin, Us Fal, Us Pupu and Us Tonbeis, as they are the lords of the land and of the lake (paha tuana, nifu tuana). Cf. A. 8.
In this text a direct link is established between the four Usif and the great warriors (meo naekini ma sapa naekini). Meo = cat; the word used in parallelism with it here is sapa = lit. lontar leaf pail; it is probably a metaphor for the head which they will take. Usually the word used in parallelism with it is asu = dog.
These are not mentioned at the presentation of the harvest gifts.
Cf. A. 6. There they are the mothers and the fathers of the ruler, and here the mothers and fathers of the people.
Cf. A. 24.
The first enumeration (C. 3–22) begins with the “interior” and ends with the “exterior”; it begins with the palace and ends with the great fathers, the custodians of the land, whereas now the reverse order is given.
LI. 23–28. All those whose place is outside the palace have to assemble at the residence of the usif, who constitute the link between the interior and the exterior.
Lanusu is the name of a sacrificial place, probably of that of the war ritual.
Cf. B. 2. There it is the harvest gifts which are described, here the foods to be collected for the mortuary ritual.
It is pretended here that the king has not yet died, so as to create an opportunity to collect the gifts for the mortuary feast.
Water, knives and spoons are metaphors for palm-wine, meat and rice.
Tribe, people — naidjuf. Cf. note no. 18 to A. 18. In other words, the ruler’s own subjects as well as those of the princedoms with which Insana has friendly relations will attend the mortuary feast.
A ritual feast always commences in the evening, so that the nights are mentioned first. The feast is talked of as though it will be celebrated immediately, but in actual fact months may pass before it takes place.
Maubesi is the centre of the realm, the territory under the immediate rule of the atupas which is governed by Kolnel Bala. This is where the palace is situated.
This refers to the compound surrounding the palace of the deceased ruler.
Kolnel Bala inspects their gifts to ascertain whether they are adequate. These are also an indication of their loyalty, and of their disposition towards the ruler.
There is sufficient meat and rice with which to welcome the guests who come from every direction. Roads and doors (lalan ma eno) refers to the groups walking one behind the other, thus forming a long “road”, and entering by the appropriate door for each.
“The old man, the old woman” also designates the atom amaf; he is the leader of the ritual of the mortuary feast.
A pounding-block with a wooden pounder used for husking rice. The lord of the people — naidjufa nai; cf. 1. 33 and A. 18.
I.e. when the rice has been husked.
These are the four lords, Nai, who “were there in the beginning”, before the arrival of the son of Liurai-Sonba’i, hence they are mentioned first.
Four “names” (of clans) by which Manlea in South Belu is designated. It is part of the realm of Liurai.
Kono-Oematan are the two usif of Sonba’i, the rulers of Miomafo and Molo respectively. Of the two realms Miomafo receives most emphasis, for Babu-Bifel are two prominent clans in the territory of Kono. This is Miomafo as viewed from Insana.
Four names representing Beboki; cf. p. 249 below, where they are called Eban-Tautpah, Tnesi-Aluman.
Four names representing Ambenu in Portuguese territory. These are the princedoms with which Insana maintains friendly relations, therefore. These relations are in the first place affinal relationships with the atupas and his usif.
Kolnel Bala is in charge of the distribution of meat and rice among all the groups of guests.
Ahaut-afatis — a set expression for the four “great fathers”, as they are the major custodians of the land who perform the agricultural ritual and are therefore the supporters and providers of the ruler.
The four palace guards.
Ritual — ceremonial (lasi-toni).
* See diagrams nos. 7, 8 and 9.
Cf. p. 145 above, however.
Cunningham, 1964a, and p. 428 below.
Cunningham, 1962, p. 71.
The first author to compare the Timorese rulers to the Merovingian roi fainéant was Pelon, 1778, fol. 10.
The title fetor, Port. feitor (=. ruler, governor), does not occur in the instructions of the Count De Sarzedas (1811), and does not fit in with the series of military titles, viz.: coronel-rei for the highest dato (the princes’ title in the Tetun language-area), tenentes coroneis, sargentos-mores and captâes for the other dato’s e tumugôes (clause no. 46, in De Castro, 1867, p. 201); tumugôa = Jav. tumenggung, regent’s title. The title fetor is not found in present-day Portuguese Timor either (Felgas, 1956). Nor did it exist in Belu at the beginning of the present century, but was introduced there by the Dutch (Grijzen, 1904, p. 129).
Cunningham, 1962, p. 67.
Archives of the Netherlands Department of Internal Affairs, Report on Beboki and Insana; and Steinmetz, 1915.
Cunningham, 1962, p. 112.
Cunningham, 1964a, p. 53; 1965, p. 365.
Id. 1962, p. 95.
Middelkoop, 1958c, p. 539.
Na-ina, na-ama, ina or aim — mother; ama — father. The prefix na — denotes the causative.
Kompani from Compagnie, i.e. the Netherlands East India Company.
Cunningham, 1964a, p. 63.
Cf. Cunningham, 1962, p. 95.
Op. cit., pp. 94, 98.
Id., 1965, pp. 369, 370. His error must be based on the fact that there are two oppositional doorways, namely one in the southern and one in the northern wall. The general pattern, as he himself states, is that “opposed parallel lines rather than a cross are formed”. His next remark, namely that “tribute deliverers serve secular lords (as he calls the four usif) and tribute receivers the sacral lord” cannot be correct, as the ritual of the acceptance of the harvest gifts does not mention tribute receivers. Us Bala takes receipt of the gifts. The “tribute receivers” mentioned here by Cunningham are the palace guards.
Middelkoop, 1963, p. 7. Ote Musu is also the name of a lineage in Amarasi. Cunningham, 1962, p. 78, quotes a myth in which Afen-pah ruled over the land before the arrival of the atupas.
Cunningham, 1962, p. 68, note 1.
Müller, 1857, II, pp. 199 and 47.
Middelkoop, 1963, p. 7.
Zondervan, 1888, p. 400.
Bastian, 1885, p. 3.
Cunningham, 1965, p. 370.
Cunningham, 1962, p. 69.
Pp. 267 ff. below.
Cf. Halphen, 1947, p. 150.
P. 249 below.
P. 88 above.
Cunningham, 1962, p. 72.
Op. cit., p. 87.
In De Castro, 1876, p. 202.
P. 182 above.
MS. Iets over het eiland Timor (Some notes on the Island of Timor).
Cunningham, 1962, p. 87.
Taolin was exiled once again in 1940.
See pp. 263, 268 below.
Cunningham, 1962, p. 71.
Personal communication.
P. 344 below.
Müller, 1857, II, p. 164.
Pp. 280, 282 below.
Steinmetz, 1916, p. 74.
D. 1851, p. 7.
Middelkoop, 1963.
Cunningham, 1962.
Idem, p. 143.
Cf. Middelkoop, Headhunting, 1963, passim.
Middelkoop, 1963, p. 227.
Middelkoop, 1960, p. 22.
Mathijsen, 1907, pp. 78, 103. This title can therefore be compared to Afen-pah (= he who wipes out the enemy).
De Castro, 1862, p. 474. The title coronel-rei occurs in the Documentos Sarzedas in De Castro, 1867, pp. 190 ff. Port. rei = king. De Castro, himself a Portuguese, could not possibly have confused rei with Tetun rai.
Forbes, 1885, p. 443.
Van Vollenhoven, I, 2, 1931, p. 438.
On the relationship between Bikomi and Tunbaba, and that between Noiltoko and Ablal see pp. 291, 287 and 283 below respectively.
To — from atoni = man. Ana = child, little. Kliko = small.
Cunningham, 1962, p.87, note 1.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1971 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nordholt, H.G.S. (1971). The Political System of Insana. In: The Political System of the Atoni of Timor. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, vol 60. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-1013-4_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-1013-4_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-015-0404-1
Online ISBN: 978-94-015-1013-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive