Abstract
The private associations of the type found in Europe and North America were introduced into Japan as a part of the process of industrialization. Japan’s economic advance was accompanied by conservatism in the social and political sphere in the relatively successful attempt to retain a large measure of traditional ethics and modes of behavior.1 The traditional elements facilitated development by helping to make early factory organization function in the Asian cultural environment, but it also slowed or hindered the full development of the associational form and the voluntary sphere of society in which it was elaborated. Traditional attitudes in Japan make associations diverge from their foreign models even today despite close resemblance.
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Notes
Takeshi Ishida, “Waga Kuni ni okeru Atsuryoku Dantai Hassei no Rekishi-teki Joken to Sono Tokushitsu,” Nihon Seiji Gakkai, Nihon Seiji Gakkai Nempo 1960: Nihon no Atsuryoku Dantai, (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1960), p. 34.
Teizo Horikoshi, Keizai Dantai Rengokai Zenshi (Tokyo: Keizai Dantal Rengokai, 1962), pp.23–24.
Yoshio Morita, Nihon Keieisha Dantai Hattenshi (Tokyo: Nihon Rodo Tsushinsha, 1958), pp. 36–42.
Matsuta Hosoya, Nihon no Rodo Kumiai no Undo: Sono Rekishi to Josei (Tokyo: Shakai Shiso Kenkyukai Shuppanbu, 1958), pp. 18–19.
Robert Schachner, “Die Japanische Industrie-Politik,” Zeitschrift für Politik, Vol. 2, No. 2 (1909), p. 569.
George Totten, “Worker Protest in Prewar Japan: The Great Noda Strike,” paper delivered at 1961 Meeting of the Association of Asian Studies, p. 23.
Kazuo Okochi, Labor in Modem Japan (Tokyo: Science Council of Japan, 1958), p. 54.
Tadashi Omagari, Asanuma Inejiro: Sono Hito, Sono Shogai, (Tokyo: Shiseido, 1961), pp. 39–60.
Takao Tsuchiya, “The Modernization of the Economy (II),” Japan Quarterly, Vol. XIII, No. 3 (July-September, 1966), pp. 332–333.
Takao Tsuchiya, Nikon no Zaibatsu (Tokyo: Kobundo, 1948), pp. 5–10.
Kunio Yanagida, Yanagida Kunio Zenshu (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1963), Vol. 15, pp. 389–390.
Robert N. Bellah, Tokugawa Religion: The Values of Pre-Industrial Japan (Glencoe: The Free Press and the Falcon’s Wing Press, 1957), pp. 40–57.
Yoshio Morita, op. cit., pp. 35–42. Tsuchiiya, Nihon no Zaibatsu, pp. 7-8.
Tsuchiya, ibid., pp. 9, 19. Thomas A. Bisson, Zaibatsu Dissolution in Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954), pp. 6–17.
Tsuchiya, Nihon no Zaibatsu, p. 23.
Johannes Hirschmeier, The Origins of Entrepreneurship in Meiji Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964), pp. 252–257.
Ibid., pp. 218-226, 23-233.
Takao Tsuchiya, Nihon no Keiyisha Seishin (Tokyo: Keizai Oraisha, 1959), p. 74. Takao Tsuchiya, Nihon Shihonshugi no Keiei Shiteki Kenkyu (Tokyo: Misuzu Shobo, 1954), pp. 110-111.
Kazuo Okochi, Sengo Nihon no Rodo Undo (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1955), pp. 15–16.
Tsuchiya, Nihon Shihonshugi no Keiei Shiteki Kenkyu, p. 74.
Kamekichi Takahashi, Nihon Zaibatsu no Kaibo (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1930), pp. 35 ff.
Ibid., pp. 25-34.
Kazuo Katsuda, Keizai Dantai Monogatari (Tokyo: Shin-Keizaisha, 1956), p. 5.
Ishida, Takeshi, “Waga Kuni ni okeru Atsuryoku Dantai Hassei no Reki-shi-teki Joken to Sono Tokushitsu,” Nihon Seiji Gakkai, Nihon Seiji Gakkai Nempo 1960: Nihon no Atsuryok Dantai, (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1960), p. 34. Ishida, “Waga Kuni ni okeru Pureshua-Gurupusu no Tokushitsu,” Keizai Hyoron, August, 1959, p. 105. Encapsulation of traditional groups is termed “kizon shudan marugakae.”
Bisson, Op. Cit., p. 15.
Takahashi, Op. cit., pp. 9ff.
Hiroshi Higuchi, Nihon Zaibatsuron (Tokyo: Mito Shoya, 1940), Vol. 1, p. 24.
Robert A. Scalapino, Democracy and the Party Movement in Prewar Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1953), p. 133.
Robert A. Scalapino, Democracy and the Party Movement in Prewar Japan (Berkeley University of California Press, 1953), p. 260.
Ibid., p. 261.
Tadashi Yoshimura, “Conservative Parties During the First Ten Years of Post-War Japan,” Waseda Political Studies, I, 1957, p. 14.
Keiichiro Hara, ed., Hara Kei Nikki (Tokyo: Kangensha, 1951), vol. 6, p. 237.
Yoshimura, Op. Cit., p. 14.
Scalapino, Op. Cit., p. 262.
Seizaburo Shinobu, Taisho Seijishi (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo, 1952), Vol. 4, pp. 1335–1336, 1345.
Scalapino, Op. Cit., pp. 281-282.
Gon’eimon Aono, Nihon Seito Hensanshi (Tokyo: Ankusha, 1935), pp. 274–281.
Scalapino, Op. cit., footnote p. 282.
Masatomi Nagata, Keizai Dantai Hattenshi (Tokyo: Kofuji Shoten, 1956), p. 143.
Ibid., p. 120
Ibid., pp. 143-144.
G. C. Allen, A Short Economic History of Modern Japan 1867-1937 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1946), p. 148.
Morita, Op. cit., p. 180.
Chitoshi Yanaga, Japan Since Perry (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1949), pp. 540–544.
Isamu Togawa, Seiji Shikin (Tokyo: Uchida Rokakuho, 1961), pp. 97–107.
Scalapino, Op. cit., p. 380.
Tsuneo Watanabe, Habatsu (First ed.; Tokyo: Kobundo, 1958), p. 18.
Keizai Dantai Rengokai, Keidanren no Junen (Tokyo: Keizai Dantai Rengokai, 1957), pp. 35–36.
Keizai Doyukai, Keizai Doyukai Junenshi (Tokyo, Keizai Doyukai, 1956), pp. 18–21.
Tsuchiya, Nihon no Keieisha Seishin, pp. 95-96.
Nagata, Op. cit., p. 20.
Keizai Doyukai, Keizai Doyukai Junenshi, p. 19.
Frank Langdon, “Big Business Lobbying in Japan: The Case of Central Bank Reform,” American Political Science Reniew, Vol. IV, No. 3 (September, 1961), p. 530, note 14.
Japan Institute of Labor, “Basic Survey of Trade Unions 1964,” Japan Labor Bulletin, New Series, Vol. 4, No. 3 (March, 1965), p. 5.
Seizaburo Shinobu, “Dokusen Shihon no Seiji e no Atsuryoku,” Yoshitake Oka, ed., Gendai Nikon no Seiji Katei (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1958), p. 78.
Makoto Hori, Oshoku (Tokyo: Mainichi Shimbunsha, 1957), pp. 70–75. The shipping group gave over a hundred parties in a nine month period in one restaurant, the Nakagawa, alone involving 700 geisha.
Shinobu, Op. cit., p. 231.
Ibid., p. 233.
Ibid., p. 246.
Ibid., p. 247.
Keizai Saiken Kondankai, “Keizai Saiken Kondankai Setsuritsu Shuisho,” January, 1955, mimeographed.
Ibid.
Frank Langdon, “The Political Contributions of Big Business in Japan,” Asian Survey, Vol. III, No. 10 (October, 1963), pp. 466–468.
Fusae Ichikawa, Shugiin Giin Sosenkyo no Senkyo Hiyo Kessan (Tokyo: Riso Senkyo Fukyukai, 1961), p. 173.
Akira Sakaguchi, “Seikai o Ugokasu Zaikai Kenryoku,” Chuo Koron, Bessatsu: Keiei Mondai, Shuki-go, 1964, pp. 308–309.
Based on personal interviews with business association officials.
Isamu Togawa, Seiji Shikin (Tokyo: Rokakuho Shinsho, 1961), pp. 68–78.
Kikuo Nakamura, Gendai Seiji no Jittai (Tokyo: Yushindo, 1958), p. 337, table 3.
Togawa, op.cit., p. 69.
Jichicho Senkyokyoku, Showa Sanjuyonenchu ni okeru Shuyo Seito no Shushi ni Kan Suru Shirabe (Tokyo: 1960), mimeographed, p. 15. See also relevant Government Gazette Extra reports of contributions.
Togawa, op. cit., p. g.
Seizaburo Shinobu, “Dokusen Shihon no Seiji e no Atsuryoku,” in Yoshitake Oka, ed., Gendai Nihon no Seiji Katei (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1958), p. 234.
The detailed published records in the Government Gazette Extra Kampo Gogai) show only the companies and associations contributing through the conveyer in 1955 which do not correspond to the amounts claimed to have been turned over in July.
Giovanni Sartori, “European Political Parties: The Case of Polarized Pluralism,” in Joseph LaPalombara and Myron Weiner, eds., Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 138–140. Japanese political parties seem to resemble French and Italian parties in the tendency to polarization in spite of a two party system. The polarization is aggravated by,if not caused by, lack of party alternation in power which distinguishes it from the Western European and North American two party systems.
Shinobu, op. cit., gives some quotations pp. 235–236. For full document see Keizai Doyukai, Keizai Doyukai Junenshi (Tokyo: Keizai Doyukai, 1956), pp. 571-574; also, pp. 388-424 for the account of conservative amalgamation and business participation.
Akira Sakaguchi, “Seikai o Ugokasu Zaikai Kenryoku,” Chuo Koron,Bessatsu: Keiei Mondai, Shuki-go, 1964, pp. 309–310.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 310.
Asahi Janaru, “Toki no Ugoki; Seikai ni Tsunagaru Zaikai no Kane,” Vol. 2, No. 44 (October 30, 1960), pp. 78–79.
Ibid.
Keizai Doyukai, “Seiji Sasshin ni Tsuite no Chukanteki Kenkai,” mimeographed, January 27, 1961.
Asahi Shimbun, “Towaku Suru Jiminto,” January 29, 1961.
Asahi Shimbun, “Kokumin Kyokai ga Hossoku, Jiminto no Shikin Chotatsu Kikan,” July 15, 1961, evening edition.
Gabriel A. Almond and Signey Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 19.
Tsuneo Watanabe, Habatsu (2nd. ed.; Tokyo: Kobundo, 1965), pp. 5–6.
Almond and Verba, op. cit., p. 19, 38.
Robert E. Ward, “Recent Electoral Developments in Japan,” Asian Survey, Vol. VI, No. 10 (October, 1966), pp. 547–567.
Ward, ibid.
Junnosuke Masumi, “A Profile of the Japanese Conservative Party,” Asian Survey, Vol, III, No. 8 (August, 1963), pp. 393–394.
Jiyuminshuto Soshiki Chosaki, Soshiki Chosakai Toshin (Tokyo: Jiyuminshuto, 1963), p. 7.
Tsuneo Watanabe, Habatsu (1st. ed.; Tokyo: Kobundo, 1958), p. 55.
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© 1968 Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands
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Heidenheimer, A.J., Langdon, F.C. (1968). How Even a Giant Conveyer is Limited in its Impact by the Timidity of the Self-Effacing Entrepreneur. In: Business Associations and the Financing of Political Parties. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-8894-4_4
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