Abstract
After 1955 the political situation in Indonesia soon became very complicated and obscure. For details of the developments the reader should consult Herbert Feith’s publications.1 There follow here the most important facts and the main outlines of the events which are important for understanding the modern history of Islam in Indonesia.
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References
Herbert Feith, The Decline; idem, The Indonesian Elections; idem, Dynamics of Guided Democracy in Ruth T. McVey, Indonesia ( Survey of World Cultures ), New Haven 1963.
Feith, The Decline,p. 591.
Yamin, Naskah,I, p. 640; Soekarno’s speech is here published in its entirety, pp. 631–648.
See Hatta’s speech to students in Bogor, printed in the Djakarta newspaper Korn pas of June 30th, 1966, where Hatta replied to a remark of Soekarno’s made at the installation of Air-Commander Rusmin Nurjadin at the end of May 1966. In this speech Soekarno had cautioned against someone (Hatta) who even ten years ago believed that the revolution was finished and who thus obviously did not have a revolutionary spirit.
Compare the remark by S. M. Abidin in the Constituent Assembly on April 29th, 1959, that Guided Democracy, proposed by Soekarno in relation to the return to the 1945 Constitution, had in fact already been in operation for two years, that is to say, from the very day that the President took upon himself the formation of the Djuanda cabinet (Yamin, Naskah, II, p. 275 ).
Cf. James Mossman, Rebels in Paradise, Indonesia’s Civil War, London 1961.
The way in which Prime Minister Djuanda denied the truth of this interpretation given by S. M. Abidin (Yamin, Naskah, II, p. 275) and Dahlan Lukman (Yamin, Naskah, II, p. 460) is not convincing (Yamin, Naskah, III, p. 287 ).
The text of this resolution by the cabinet and the explanation added to it can be found in Yamin, Naskah,I, pp. 487–508.
For the minutes of these meetings see Yamin, Naskah,I, pp. 511–571.
Cf. Yamin, Naskah, I, pp. 573–623.
Article 29 runs as follows: (1) The State is founded on Belief in the One and Only God; (2) The State guarantees the freedom of every inhabitant to profess his own religion and to worship according to his own religion and belief.
This extremely long speech is known under the title of Res Publica, sekali lagi Res Publica (“Res Publica, once again Res Publica!”); cf. Yamin, Naskah,I, pp. 653–702; in English, II, pp. 199–244.
A great deal of Yamin’s work covers the minutes of these Assembly meetings; cf. Naskah,II, pp. 187–848 and III, pp. 115–625.
Yamin, Naskah, II,p. 537; what is meant is a return to the draft Constitution as it was on July 16th, 1945 (see Chapter I, par. 3).
Mentioned in Chapter I, par. 8; for his speech, see Yamin, Naskah, II,pp. 544–554.
Yamin, Naskah, II,pp. 701–707. 28 Yamin, Naskah, II,p. 836.
Yamin, Naskah,III, pp. 149–164.
Yamin, Naskah, III,pp. 285–329.
Yamin, Naskah,III, pp. 367, 447; both found that their fear was well grounded, as during the last years of the Soekarno regime they were imprisoned and only released after Soekarno’s fall
Yamin, Naskah, III,p. 392, pp. 477–480 and p. 483.
Yamin, Naskah, III,pp. 511–522.
Yamin, Naskah, III,pp. 527–528 and p. 569.
Yamin, Naskah, III,pp. 531–537.
Yamin, Naskah, III,pp. 571–573.
Yamin, Naskah, III,p. 586.
Cf. Yamin, Naskah, III, pp. 591–625.
Duta Masjarakat (Djakarta newspaper), June 19th, 1959; Keesings Historisch Archief,Amsterdam-Antwerpen, 1959, no. 1460, p. 14,956.
The Indonesian text of this frequently quoted Decree is to be found in Yamin, Naskah,III, p. 661, followed by an English translation probably originating from the Indonesian Ministry of Information.
According to Yamin, the translation “is linked in unity” is too explicit an interpretation; cf. Yamin, Pembahasan,p. 289.
Concerning the enormous buildings which were erected in Djakarta, it must be admitted that Soekarno was a capable architect who tried to give Djakarta the appearance of a city of world standing. As a matter of fact the capital of the former Dutch East Indies was not much more than a provincial Dutch garden-city.
Cf. Hatta, Demokrasi kita, reprinted as a pamphlet, Djakarta 1966.
This statement of December 27th, 1966, is to be found in Pandji Masjarakat,no. 7, January 1967, p. 7.
See Pandji Masjarakat,no. 1, October 1966, p. 11.
Feith, Dynamics,p. 407 ff.
D. C. Mulder, De Islam, in Theologische Etherleergang der N.C.R.V., no. 4, September 1965, p. 165.
J. W. M. Bakker S.J., De Godsdienstvrijheid in de Indonesische Grondwetten,in Het Missiewerk,1956, no. 4, p. 215.
Compare Van Nieuwenhuijze, Aspects,pp. 217–243, who shows a positive appreciation, in spite of criticism of the way in which the work is sometimes carried out. In contrast to this, see Muskens, Indonesië,p. 288.
Wahid Hasjim, p. 610 (probably taken from a speech by R. Moh. Kafrawi, for many years Chief Secretary of the Ministry of Religious Affairs).
Cf. Van Nieuwenhuijze, Aspects,pp. 222–231, and Muskens, Indonesië,pp. 282–284.
Wahid Hasjim, pp. 600–601, dating from the end of 1949, when Wahid Hasjim acted as Minister of Religion. Cf. Sidjabat, Religious Tolerance,p. 58, probably a variant of the same list.
Compare article 29, second clause, of the 1945 Constitution.
The “repressive controls over new religious sects” mentioned by Feith, Dynamics,p. 407, were applied, for example, to the “Javanese-Sundanese Religion” in West Java, which was considered “unsound”, that is to say, subversive to orthodox religion.
The resolutions of the People’s Congress held in 1966 are collected, for example, in the pamphlet ABRI Pengemban Suara Hati Nurani Rakjat,ed. by Brig. Djen. Sutjipto, Djakarta 1966, two volumes. of The resolutions of this A.A.I.C. are published in Al-Djami’ah,no. 3, May 1965.
Van Nieuwenhuijze, Aspects,p. 162.
Cf. Petundjuk dalam Membina Madrasah, Vol. II, ed. by Pen. MULJA, Djakarta 1966.
Waldemar Stöhr and Piet Zoetmulder, Die Religionen Indonesiens Stuttgart 1965, p. 292 ff. (my translation).
Seminar Pondok Pesantrèn Seluruh Indonesia,in Al-Djami’ah,no. 5–6, p. 83. Compare what Clifford Geertz says about the African marabout and his baraka (Islam Observed,p. 43 ff.).
Stöhr-Zoetmulder, Die Religionen,p. 294 (my translation).
Mahmud Junus, Sedjarah Pendidikan Islam di Indonesia,Djakarta 1960 (1379 H.).
Cf. Mahmud Junus, Sedjarah,p. 45 ff.; according to Mahmud Junus the names surau and rangkang still occur, but the word pesantrèn has already become a common Indonesian word. Officially the term pondok pesantrèn (santri hostel) is used.
Concerning the contrast between these two Ministries, cf. Muskens, Indonesié,p. 291 ff.
See Mahmud Junus, Sedjarah,p. 216, and Pandji Masjarakat,no. 26 (March 1968?), pp. 27–29.
I. Zarkasji, Usuluddin (‘ala madzhab Ahli-ssunna wal Djama’ah),Gontor/ Ponorogo, no date.
Al-Djami’ah,no. 5–6, September-November 1965, p. 46.
Mahmud Junus, Sedjarah,p. 103.
Mahmud Junus, Sedjarah,p. 251.
A. M. Mohiaddin Alwaye, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 1966, pp. 8–11.
This speech and more information about this University is to be found in Buku Peringatan University Islam Indonesia,published on the occasion of its tenth anniversary, celebrated on 27 Radjab 1374 H. (= March 22nd, 1955).
Cf. Bernhard Dahm, Sukarnos Kampf um Indonesiens Unabhängigkeit, Mannheim 1964; here taken from the Dutch translation, Soekarno en de strijd om Indonese’s onafhankelijkheid,Meppel, no date, p. 12 ff. 78 Quoted by Dahm, Soekarno,p. 184.
Dahm, Soekarno,p. 166. The first edition of Stoddard’s book appeared in New York in 1921. Stoddard’s intention was to show that the world of Islam was awakening, thanks to leaders such as al-Afghani and Muh. cAbduh. In this way he also opened the eyes of some Muslims to the condition of Islam and its possibilities for renewal. At Soekarno’s insistence, just before his fall from power, this book was translated into Indonesian and published under the title Dunia Baru Islam,with a foreword by Soekarno, dated January 1st, 1966. The translation committee added a final chapter on modern Islam in Indonesia (pp. 295–332).
Dahm, Soekarno,p. 169.
According to the Indonesian Shahih Buchari,Djakarta Vol. I, 19646 and Vol. II, 19662, the translation and publication was begun in 1937 in instalments; the revision for a second edition (Vol. I, 1952) was apparently stimulated by the Ministry of Religion (Minister Wahid Hasjim).
Cf Dahm, Soekarno,pp. 170–178.
A small collection of sayings by Soekarno is given in Solichin Salam, Bung Karno dan Kehidupan Berpikir Dalam Islam,Djakarta 1964.
Salam, Bung Karno,p. 91. When speaking of “catching up with time”, one must realize that the Indonesian expression ketinggalan zaman (obsolete, out of date) literally means that something is “left behind by time”.
Compare Smith, Islam,p. 164 ff.
Quoted by Dahm, Soekarno,p. 191.
Salam, Bung Karno,p. 69, from Soekarno’s speech “The Birth of the Pantjasila”, Yamin, Naskah,I, p. 61 ff.
Tjilaka Negara jang tidak ber-Tuhan,published in Al-Djami’ah,special issue, January 1965.
Cf. Smith, Islam,p. 166, on HMI’s poem “The Flow and Ebb of Islam”. 91 With regard to this metaphor of “rising up” and a little later that of micrâdj (literally “ladder”), it must be remembered that this ceremony took place in connection with the celebration of Micradj,the feast of the Prophet’s “ascension” or “journey into Heaven”. Compare Sura 17:1, which, according to the translation by Moh. M. Pickthall, “relates to the Prophet’s vision, in which he was carried by night upon a heavenly steed to the Temple of Jerusalem, whence he was caught up through the seven heavens to the very presence of God”. In each heaven the Prophet talked with one of the earlier messengers of God. Compare the way in which Soekarno is going to speak of his encounters with “the leaders of America”.
I.e. of the I.A.I.N., the State Islamic Institute.
That Soekarno shocked many kiyais with this criticism of the pesantrèns became apparent at the abovementioned “Seminar” held in July 1965 in Jogjakarta; cf. Al-D jam? ah,no. 5–6, Sept.-Nov. 1965, pp. 9, 53, 73, 81, 109.
It should be borne in mind that Soekarno on this occasion was being made honorary doctor in Ilmu Ushuluddin Djurusan Dacwah,something like “Systematic Theology with a specialization in Missiology”!
Tauhid adalah Djiwaku, Amanat P. J. M. Presiden,Djakarta 1965.
The speech by Prof. Baroroh Baried (“the first Indonesian woman who conferred an honorary degree on President Soekarno”) is also published in the booklet mentioned above, under the English heading “For a fighting Moslem Hero, there is no journey’s end”.
The ministers mentioned were apparently present at this ceremony.
Cf. the speech by the Minister of Religion, K. H. M. Wahib Wahab on January 10th, 1962, who gave this Qur’anic support for the Muslims’ obedience to Soekarno’s order for the liberation of West Irian; the necessity of obedience for the Christians was shown by quoting Matthew 22:21 (see Mutiara Hikmah,published by the Ministry of Religion, no. 330–1962, p. 41 ff.).
According to Father Bakker, this “recognition” was a decision made by a number of N.U. kiyais and ulamas at a conference in March 1954 (J. W. M. Bakker S.J., Godsdienstvrijheid,p. 226); the author rendered the meaning of the title concerned as follows: the head of an Islamic State which for the time being has to be recognized and obeyed. The Arabic shauka occurs in Sura 8:7 in the meaning of armed force.
Taufiq Ismail, Doa,in his collection Tirani,Djakarta 1966, p. 25; see also Pandji Masjarakat,no. 2, October 1966, p. 3, where part of this poem is used as a motto for an editorial under the heading Taubat Nashuha (“Sincere Repentence”, cf. Sura 66:8).
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Boland, B.J. (1982). The Islamic Community Amid Increasing Tensions (1955–1965). In: The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, vol 59. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-7895-2_3
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