Abstract
A familiar scene almost anywhere in the United States today: Several hundred students file into a large examination hall. They sit nervously, waiting for sealed packets to be handed out. At the appointed hour, booklets are distributed, brief instructions are issued, and formal testing begins. The hall is still as students at each desk bear down on number two pencils and fill in the bubbles which punctuate the answer sheets. A few hours later, the testing ends and the booklets are collected; several weeks later, a sheet bearing a set of scores arrives at each student’s home and at the colleges to which the students have directed their scores. The results of a morning’s testing become a powerful factor in decisions about the future of each student.
Research described in this chapter has been supported by the Grant Foundation, the Lilly Endowment, the Markle Foundation, the McDonnell Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Spencer Foundation, the Van Leer Foundation, and the U.S. Center for Technology in Education of the Bank Street College of Education. For their comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript, I am indebted to Bernard Gifford, Drew Gitomer, Catherine O’ Connor, Robert Steinberg, and Joseph Walters.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aiken, W. 1942. The story of the Eight Year Study. New York: Harper and Brothers.
Anderson, M. 1987. Inspection time and the development of intelligence. Paper delivered to British Psychological Society Conference, Sussex University.
Bamberger, J. 1982. Revisiting children’s drawings of simple rhythms: A function for reflection-in-action. In U-shaped behavioral growth, ed. S. Strauss. New York: Academic Press.
Bijou, S., and D. Baer. 1965. Child development. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.
Binet, A., and T. Simon. 1905. Methodes nouvelles pour le diagnostique du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L’annee psychologique II:245–336.
Block, N., and G. Dworkin. 1976. The IQ controversy. New York: Pantheon.
Bloom, A. 1987. The closing of the American mind. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Brainerd, C. 1978. The stage question in cognitive-developmental theory. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:173–213.
Brown, R., and Herrnstein, R. 1975. Psychology. Boston: Little Brown.
Buros, O. 1978. The eighth mental measurements yearbook. Highland Park, New Jersey: Gryphon Press.
Carini, P. 1987. Another way of looking. Paper presented at the Cambridge School Conference, Weston, Massachusetts, October.
Case, R. 1985. Intellectual development: Birth to adolescence. New York: Academic Press.
Collins, A., J. S. Brown, and S. E. Newman. In press. Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. In Cognition and instruction: issues and agendas, ed. L. Resnick. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cronbach, L. 1984. Essentials of psychological testing. New York: Harper and Row.
Cronbach, L., and R. Snow. 1977. Aptitudes and instructional methods. New York: Irving ton.
Cross, K. P., and T. Angelo. 1988. Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for faculty. Ann Arbor: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning (NCRIPTL).
Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1988. Society, culture, and persons: A systems view of creativity. In The nature of creativity, ed. R. Steinberg. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., and R. Robinson. 1986. Culture, time, and the development of talent. In Conceptions of giftedness, ed. R. Sternberg and J. Davidson. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dewey, J. 1938. Experience and education. New York: Collier.
Eisner, E. 1987. Structure and magic in discipline-based arts education. In Proceedings of a National Invitational Conference, Los Angeles: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts.
Eysenck, H. J. 1967. Intelligence assessment: A theoretical and experimental approach. British Journal of Educational Psychology 37:81–98.
Eysenck, H. J. 1979. The nature and measurement of intelligence. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Feldman, D. 1980. Beyond universals in cognitive development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Fischer, K. W. 1980. A theory of cognitive development. Psychological Review 87:477–531.
Fodor, J. 1983. The modularity of mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Gardner, H. 1975. The shattered mind. New York: Knopf.
Gardner, H. 1982. Art, mind, and brain. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. 1985. The mind’s new science. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. 1986. The development of symbolic literacy. In Toward a greater understanding of literacy, ed. M. Wrolstad and D. Fisher. New York: Praeger.
Gardner, H. 1987a. Developing the spectrum of human intelligence. Harvard Education Review 57:187–93.
Gardner, H. 1987b. An individual-centered curriculum. In The schools we’ve got, the schools we need. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers and the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education.
Gardner, H. 1988a. Creative lives and creative works: A synthetic scientific approach. In The nature of creativity, ed. R. J. Sternberg. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gardner, H. 1988b. Mobilizing resources for individual-centered education. In Technology in education: Looking toward 2020, ed. R. Nickerson. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gardner, H. 1989a. Balancing specialized and comprehensive knowledge. In Schooling for tomorrow: Directing reforms to issues that count, ed. T. Sergiovanni. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Gardner, H. 1989b. The school of the future. In The reality club, ed. J. Brockman. New York: in press.
Gardner, H. 1989c. Zero-based arts education: An introduction to ARTS PROPEL. Studies in Art Education 30 (2): 71–83.
Gardner, H., and C. Wolf. 1988. The fruits of asynchrony: Creativity from a psychological point of view. Adolescent psychiatry 15:106–23.
Gardner, H., V. Howard, and D. Perkins. 1974. Symbol systems: A philosophical, psychological and educational investigation. In Media and symbols, ed. D. Olson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gelman, R. 1978. Cognitive development. Annual Review of Psychology 29:297– 332.
Getty Center for Education in the Arts. 1985. Beyond creating: The Place for art in American schools. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Trust.
Goodman, N. 1976. Languages of art. Indianapolis: Hackett.
Gould, S. J. 1981. The mismeasure of man. New York: Norton.
Grant, D., ed. 1978. On competence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Grant, G. 1988. The world we created at Hamilton High. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gruber, H. 1981. Darwin on man. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gruber, H. 1985. Giftedness and moral responsbility: Creative thinking and human survival. In The gifted and talented: developmental perspectives, ed. F. Horowitz and M. O’Brien. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Guilford, J. P. 1950. Creativity. American Psychologist 5:444–54.
Guilford, J. P. 1967. The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw Hill.
Hatch, T., and H. Gardner. 1986. From testing intelligence to assessing competences: A pluralistic view of intellect. The Roeper Review 8:147–50.
Hirsch, E. D. 1987. Cultural literacy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Hoffmann, B. 1962. The tyranny of testing. New York: Crowel-Collier Press.
Jencks, C. 1972. Inequality. New York: Basic Books.
Jensen, A. R. 1980. Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press.
Jensen, A. R. 1987. Individual differences in the Hick paradigm. In Speed of information processing and intelligence, ed. P. Vernon. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Kagan, J., and N. Kogan. 1970. Individual variation in cognitive processing. In Handbook of child psychology, ed. P. Mussen. New York: Wiley.
Kaplan, E. 1983. Process and achievement revisited. In Toward a holistic developmental psychology, ed. S. Wapner and B. Kaplan. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition. 1982. Culture and intelligence. In Handbook of human intelligence, ed. R. J. Steinberg. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Langer, S. K. 1942. Philosophy in a new key. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Lave, J. 1980. What’s special about experiments as contexts for thinking? Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 2:86–91.
Malkus, U., D. Feldman, and H. Gardner. 1988. Dimensions of mind in early childhood. In The psychological bases of early childhood, ed. A. D. Pelligrini. Chichester, U. K.: Wiley.
Messick, S. 1988. Validity. In Educational measurement. 3d ed., ed. R. Linn. New York: Macmillan.
Newell, A., and H. A. Simon. 1972. Human problem-solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Olson, L. 1988. Children flourish here: 8 teachers and a theory changed a school world. Education Week 7 (18): 1,18–19.
Perkins, D. 1981. The mind’s best work. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Piaget, J. 1983. Piaget’s theory. In Manual of child psychology, ed. P. Mussen. New York: Wiley.
Polanyi, M. 1958. Personal knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ravitch, D., and C. Finn. 1987. What do our seventeen-year-olds know? New York: Harper and Row.
Resnick, L. 1987. The 1987 presidential address: Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher 16 (9): 13–20.
Rogoff, B. 1982. Integrating context and cognitive development. In Advances in developmental psychology, vol. 2, ed. M. Lamb and A. Brown. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Scribner, S. 1986. Thinking in action: Some characteristics of practical thought. In Practical Intelligence, ed. R. Sternberg and R. K. Wagner. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sizer, T. 1984. Horace’s compromise. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Squire, L. 1986. Mechanisms of memory. Science 232:1612–19.
Sternberg, R. 1977. Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sternberg, R. 1985. Beyond IQ. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R., ed. 1988. The nature of creativity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Strauss, S. 1982. U-shaped behavioral growth. New York: Academic Press.
Thurstone, L. 1938. Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Uzgiris, I., and J. McV. Hunt. 1966. An instrument for assessing infant intellectual development. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Wallach, M. 1971. The intelligence/creativity distinction. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Wallach, M. 1985. Creativity testing and giftedness. In The gifted and talented: Developmental perspectives, ed. F. Horowitz and M. O’Brien. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Walters, J., and H. Gardner. 1986. The crystallizing experience. In Conceptions of giftedness, ed. R. Sternberg and J. Davidson. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wexler-Sherman, C., H. Gardner, and D. H. Feldman. 1988. A pluralistic view of early assessment: The Project Spectrum approach. Theory into Practice 27 (1): 77– 83.
Willingham, W. 1985. Success in college. New York: College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB).
Zessoules, R., D. Wolf, and H. Gardner. 1988. A better balance: ARTS PROPEL as an alternative to discipline-based art education. In Beyond discipline-based art education, ed. J. Burton, A. Lederman, and P. London. North Dartmouth, MA: University Council on Art Education.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1992 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gardner, H. (1992). Assessment in Context: The Alternative to Standardized Testing. In: Gifford, B.R., O’Connor, M.C. (eds) Changing Assessments. Evaluation in Education and Human Services, vol 30. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2968-8_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2968-8_4
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-5318-1
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-2968-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive