Skip to main content

Physiology and functional anatomy

  • Chapter
Health and Welfare of Captive Reptiles

Abstract

Considerations of morphology and physiology are important to the health and welfare of captive reptiles, particularly in light of their diversity and possession of characteristics that are fundamentally very different from those of domesticated or laboratory mammals. Although many reptiles seem easily managed in captive circumstances, others will have special requirements and may diminish in health or vigour even while appropriate care appears to be provided. Such health problems are often related to some aspect of physiology that is either inadvertently neglected or, more usually, not well understood. Both physiology and structure-function relationships are important underpinnings of normal species-specific behaviours.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ackerman, R.A. and White, F.N. (1980) The effects of temperature on acid-base balance and ventilation of the marine iguana. Respiration Physiology, 39, 133–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Avery, R.A. (1982) Field studies of body temperatures, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 93–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Axelsson, M., Holm, S. and Nilsson, S. (1989) Flow dynamics of the Crocodilian heart. American Journal of Physiology, 256, R875–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, G. A. (1966) A field study of temperature relations in the Galapagos marine iguana. Copeia, 1966, 241–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, G. A. (1982) Physiological control of body temperature, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 167–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorndal, K.A. (1989) Flexibility of digestive responses in two generalist herbivores, the tortoises Geochelone carbonaria and Geochelone denticulata. Oecologia, 78, 317–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorndal, K.A. (1991) Diet mixing: non-additive interactions of diet items in an omnivorous freshwater turtle. Ecology, 72, 1234–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorndal, K.A. and Bolten, A.B. (1990) Digestive processing in a herbivorous freshwater turtle: consequences of small-intestine fermentation. Physiological Zoology, 63, 1232–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorndal, K.A., Bolten, A.B. and Moore, J.E. (1990) Digestive fermentation in herbivores: effect of food particle size. Physiological Zoology, 63, 710–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brattstrom, B.H. (1978) Learning studies in lizards, in Behavior and Neurology of Lizards: An Interdisciplinary Colloquium, (eds N. Greenberg and P.D. MacLean), US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare Publ. No. ADM 77–491, pp. 173–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burggren, W.W. (1977) Circulation during intermittent lung ventilation in the garter snake Thamnophis. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 55, 1720–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burggren, W.W. (1987) Form and function in reptilian circulations. American Zoologist, 27, 5–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burggren, W.W. and Johansen, K. (1982) Ventricular haemodynamics in the monitor lizard Varanus exanthematicus: pulmonary and systemic pressure separation. Journal of Experimental Biology, 96, 343–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burggren, W.W. and Shelton, G. (1979) Gas exchange and transport during intermittent breathing in chelonian reptiles. Journal of Experimental Biology, 82, 75–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, A.B. (1978) Forebrain connections in lizards and the evolution of sensory systems, in Behavior and Neurology of Lizards: An Interdisciplinary Colloquium, (eds N. Greenberg and P.D. MacLean), US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare Publ. No. ADM 77–491, pp. 65–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson, R.A. and Hernandez, T. (1964) Biochemistry of the Alligator: A Study of Metabolism in Slow Motion, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson, R.A. and Hernandez, T. (1983) Alligator metabolism studies on chemical reactions in vivo. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 74B, i–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cruce, J.A.F. and Cruce, W.L.R. (1978) Analysis of the visual system in a lizard, Tupinambis nigropunctatus, in Behavior and Neurology of Lizards: An Interdisciplinary Colloquium, (eds N. Greenberg and P.D. MacLean), US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare Publ. No. ADM 77–491, pp. 79–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dantzler, W.H. and Braun, E.J. (1980) Comparative nephron function in reptiles, birds, and mammals. American Journal of Physiology, 239, R197–213.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, D.G., Thomas, J.L. and Smith, E.N. (1982) Effect of body temperature on ventilatory control in the alligator. Journal of Applied Physiology, 52, 114–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Witt, C.B. (1967) Precision of thermoregulation and its relation to environmental factors in the desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis. Physiological Zoology, 40, 49–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncker, H.R. (1978) General morphological principles of amniotic lungs, in Respiratory Function in Birds, Adult and Embryonic, (ed. J. Piper), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 2–15.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Dunson, W. A. (1976) Salt glands in reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Physiology A, (eds C. Gans and W. R. Dawson), Academic Press, New York, pp. 413–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunson, W.A. (1979) Control mechanisms in reptiles, in Mechanisms of Osmoregulation in Animals, (ed. R.Gilles), Wiley Interscience, New York, pp. 273–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunson, W.A. (1984) The contrasting roles of the salt glands, the integument and behavior in osmoregulation of marine and estuarine reptiles, in Osmoregulation in Estuarine and Marine Animals, (eds A. Pequeux, R. Gilles and L. Bolis), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 107–29.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Dunson, W.A. and Mazzotti, F.J. (1989) Salinity as a limiting factor in the distribution of reptiles in Florida Bay: a theory for the estuarine origin of marine snakes and turtles. Bulletin of Marine Science, 44, 229–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunson, W.A. and Robinson, G.D. (1976) Sea snake skin: permeable to water but not to sodium. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 108, 303–311.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feder, M. and Burggren, W.W. (1985) Cutaneous gas exchange in vertebrates: design, patterns, control and implications. Biological Reviews, 60, 1–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Firth, B.T. and Turner, J.S. (1982) Sensory, neural, and hormonal aspects of thermoregulation, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 213–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foggin, C.M. (1987) Diseases and disease control on crocodile farms in Zimbabwe, in Wildlife Management of Crocodiles and Alligators, (eds G.J.W. Webb, S.C. Manolis and P.J. Whitehead) Surrey Beatty and Sons, Ltd., Chipping Norton, New South Wales, Australia, pp. 351–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frye, F.L. (1991a) Biomedical and Surgical Aspects of Captive Reptile Husbandry, Krieger Publishing Co. Inc., Malabar, Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frye, F.L. (1991b) A Practical Guide for Feeding Captive Reptiles, Publishing Co. Inc., Malabar, Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatten, R.E., Jr (1974) Effects of temperature and activity on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and heart rate in the turtles Pseudemys scripta and Terrapene ornata. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 48A, 619–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gehrmann, W.H. (1987) Ultraviolet irradiances of various lamps used in animal husbandry. Zoo Biology, 6, 117–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gehrmann, W.H., Ferguson, G.W., Odom, T.W. et al. (1991) Early growth and bone mineralization of the iguanid lizard Sceloporus occidentalis in captivity: is vitamin D3 supplementation or ultraviolet B irradiation necessary? Zoo Biology, 10, 409–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, A.R., Smucny, D.A. and Kollar, J. (1989) The effects of feeding and ecdysis on temperature selection by young garter snakes in a simple thermal mosaic. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 67, 19–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grigg, G.C. (1981) Plasma homeostasis and cloacal urine composition in Crocodylus porosus caught along a salinity gradient. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 144, 261–70.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heisler, N. (1985) Mechanisms of intracardiac shunting in reptiles, in Circulation, Respiration, and Metabolism, (ed. R. Gilles), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 125– 38.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hertz, P.E. (1992) Temperature regulation in Puerto Rican Anolis lizards: a field test using null hypotheses. Ecology, 73, 1405–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, J.W. and Wood, S.C. (1985) Temperature regulation in lizards: effects of hypoxia. American Journal of Physiology, 248, R595–600.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holick, M.F. (1989) Phylogenetic and evolutionary aspects of vitamin D from phytoplankton to humans, in Vertebrate Endocrinology: Fundamentals and Biomedical Implications, Vol. 3, (eds P.K.T. Pang and M.P. Schreibman), Academic Press, Orlando, FL, pp. 7–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell, B.J. and Rahn, H. (1976) Regulation of acid-base balance in reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Physiology A, (eds C. Gans and W.R. Dawson), Academic Press, New York, pp. 335–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huey, R.B. (1982) Temperature, physiology, and the ecology of reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 25–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huey, R.B. and Stevenson, R.D. (1979) Integrating thermal physiology and ecology of ectotherms: a discussion of approaches. American Zoologist, 19, 357–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huggins, S.E. (1961) Blood volume parameters of a poikilothermal animal in hypo-and hyperthermia. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 108, 231–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huggins, S.E. and Percoco, R.A. (1965) Blood volume in alligators during prolonged hypothermia. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 119, 678–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchison, V.H. and Dupre, R.K. (1992) Thermoregulation, in Environmental Physiology of the Amphibians, (eds M.E. Feder and W.W. Burggren), University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 206–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutton, K.E. (1961) Blood volume, corpuscular constants, and shell weight in turtles. American Journal of Physiology, 200, 1004–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson, J.B. (1982) Adaptations to herbivory in iguanine lizards, in Iguanas of the World: Their Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, (eds G.M. Burghardt and A.S. Rand), Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, pp. 60–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R.N. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1979) Digestive efficiency of the omnivorous lizard Klauberina riversiana. Copeia, 1979, 431–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J.P. (1978) Photoperiod and reptile reproduction. Herpetological Review, 9, 95–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, J. and Frankel, H.M. (1972) Inadequacy of blood drawn by cardiac puncture as a source for respiratory gas measurements in turtle (Pseudemys scripta). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 41A, 913–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kluger, M.J. (1979) Fever in ectotherms: evolutionary implications. American Zoologist, 19, 295–304.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kluger, M.J., Ringler, D.H. and Anver, M.R. (1975) Fever and survival. Science, 188, 166–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lance, V.A. (1992) Evaluating pain and stress in reptiles, in The Care and Use of Amphibians, Reptiles and Fish in Research (eds D.O. Schaeffer, K.M. Kleinow and L. Krulisch), Scientists Center Animal Welfare, pp. 101–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landmann, L. (1979) Keratin formation and barrier mechanisms in the epidermis of Natrix natrix (Reptilia: Serpentes). An ultrastructural study. Journal of Morphology, 162, 93–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landmann, L., Stolinski, C. and Martin, B. (1981) The permeability barrier in the epidermis of the grass snake during the resting stage of the sloughing cycle. Cell and Tissue Research, 215, 369–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lauren, D.J. (1985) The effect of chronic saline exposure on the electrolyte balance, nitrogen metabolism, and corticosterone titer in the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 81A, 217–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, Y.F. and Terashima, S.I. (1993) Physiological properties and morphological characteristics of cutaneous and mucosal mechanical nociceptive neurons with A-δ peripheral axons in the trigeminal ganglia of crotaline snakes. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 328, 88–102.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Licht, P. (1965) The relation between preferred body temperatures and testicular heat sensitivity in lizards. Copeia, 1965, 428–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Licht, P. (1972) Environmental physiology of reptilian breeding cycles: role of temperature. General and Comparative Endocrinology Supplement, 3, 477–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. (1985) Behavioral control of arterial pressure in snakes. Physiological Zoology, 58, 159–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. (1987a) Temperature, energetics and physiological ecology, in Snakes: Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, (eds R. Seigel, J. Collins and S. Novak), MacMillan, New York, pp. 422–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. (1987b) Circulatory adaptations of snakes to gravity. American Zoologist, 27, 81–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. (1988) Snakes, blood circulation and gravity. Scientific American, 256, 92–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. and Ellis, T.M. (1994) Ecophysiological aspects of the coastal-estuarine distribution of acrochordid snakes. Estuaries, 17, 53–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. and Maderson, P.F.A. (1982) Skin structure and permeability, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F. H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 397–442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. and Maderson, P.F.A. (1988) The structure and permeability of integument. American Zoologist, 28, 945–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. and Smith, L.H. (1981) Haemodynamic responses to haemorrhage in the snake, Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta. Journal of Experimental Biology, 94, 275–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. and Smits, A.W. (1984) Lability of blood volume in snakes and its relation to activity and hypertension. Journal of Experimental Biology, 110, 267–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite, H.B. and Smits, A.W. (1992) Cardiovascular adaptations of viperid snakes, in Biology of the Pitvipers, (eds J.A. Campbell and E.D. Brodie, Jr), Selva, Tyler, TX, pp. 143–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutterschmidt, W.I. and Reinert, H.K. (1990) The effect of ingested transmitters upon the temperature preference of the northern water snake, Nerodia s. sipedon. Herpetologica, 46, 39–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutz, P.L., Bergey, A., and Bergey, M. (1989) Effects of temperature on gas exchange and acid-base balance in the sea turtle Caretta caretta at rest and during routine activity. Journal of Experimental Biology, 144, 155–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mautz, W.J. (1982) Patterns of evaporative water loss, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 441–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazzotti, F.J. and Dunson, W.A. (1989) Osmoregulation in crocodilians. American Zoologist, 29, 903–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • McBee, R.H. and McBee, V.H. (1982) The hindgut fermentation in the green iguana, Iguana iguana, in Iguanas of the World: Their Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, (eds G.M. Burghardt and A.S. Rand), Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, pp. 77–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, H.S. (1976) Methods for the physiological study of reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Physiology A, (eds C. Gans and W.R. Dawson), Academic Press, New York, pp. 19–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minnich, J.E. (1979) Reptiles, in Comparative Physiology of Osmoregulation in Animals, Vol. 1, (ed. G.M.O. Maloiy), Academic Press, New York, pp. 391– 641.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minnich, J.E. (1982) The use of water, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 325–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moehn, L.D. (1974) The effect of quality of light on agonistic behavior of iguanid and agamid lizards. Journal of Herpetology, 8, 175–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muth, A. (1977) Thermoregulatory postures and orientation to the sun: a mechanistic evaluation for the zebra-tailed lizard, Callisaurus draconoides. Copeia, 1977, 710–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, K.A. (1983) Ecological energetics, in Lizard Ecology: Studies of a Model Organism, (eds R.B. Huey, E.R. Pianka and T.W. Schoener), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 24–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, G.A., Hessler, J.R., and Faith, R.E. (1975) Technics for blood collection and intravascular infusion in reptiles. Laboratory Animal Science, 25, 783–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ottaviani, G. and Tazzi, A. (1977) The lymphatic system, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 6, Morphology E, (eds C. Gans and T.S. Parsons), Academic Press, New York, pp. 315–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, T.S. and Cameron, J.E. (1977) Internal relief of the digestive tract, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 6, Morphology E, (eds C. Gans and T.S. Parsons), Academic Press, New York, pp. 159–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, S.F. (1989) Structure and function of the reptilian respiratory system, in Comparative Pulmonary Physiology, (ed. S.C. Wood), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 193–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C.R., Gibson, A.R., and Dorcas, M.E. (1993) Snake thermal ecology: the causes and consequences of body-temperature variation, in Snakes: Ecology and Behavior, (eds R.A. Seigel and J.T. Collins), McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 241–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter, W.P. (1967) Solar radiation through the living body walls of vertebrates with emphasis on desert reptiles. Ecological Monographs, 37, 273–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pough, F.H. (1969a) The morphology of undersand respiration in reptiles. Herpetologica, 25, 216–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pough, F.H. (1969b) Physiological aspects of the burrowing of sand lizards (Uma, Iguanidae) and other lizards. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 31, 869–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pough, F.H. (1980) The advantages of ectothermy for tetrapods. American Naturalist, 115, 92–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pough, F.H. (1991) Recommendations for the care of amphibians and reptiles in academic institutions. I.L.A.R. News, 33, S5–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pough, F.H. and Gans, C. (1982) The vocabulary of reptilian thermoregulation, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 17–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pough, F.H. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1984) Blood volume and blood oxygen capacity of sea snakes. Physiological Zoology, 57, 32–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Regal, P.J. (1980) Temperature and light requirements of captive reptiles, in Reproductive Biology and Diseases of Captive Reptiles, (eds J.B. Murphy and J.T. Collins), Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Oxford, OH, pp. 79–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J.B. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1980) Lipid barrier to water exchange in reptile epidermis. Science, 207, 1077–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J.B. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1983) Lipids and the permeability of epidermis from snakes. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 228, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, R.S. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1976) Blood pressure in snakes from different habitats. Nature, 264, 664–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, R.S., Bennett, A.F. and Bradford, D.F. (1985) Blood gas tensions and acid-base regulation in the salt-water crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, at rest and after exhaustive exercise. Journal of Experimental Biology, 118, 143–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smits, A.W. (1985) Correlates of activity, diet, and body water flux in the chuckwalla lizard Sauromalus hispidus. Physiological Zoology, 58, 166–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smits, A.W. and Kozubowski, M.M. (1985) Partitioning of body fluids and cardiovascular responses to circulatory hypovolaemia in the turtle, Pseudemys scripta elegans. Journal of Experimental Biology, 116, 237–50.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, G.K. (1971) Influence of temperature and haematocrit on blood viscosity. American Journal of Physiology, 220, 1667–72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, R.D., Peterson, C.R., and Tsuji, J.S. (1985) The thermal dependence of locomotion, tongue flicking, digestion, and oxygen consumption in the wandering garter snake. Physiological Zoology, 58, 46–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stinner, J.N. (1987) Thermal dependence of air convection requirement and blood gases in the snake Coluber constrictor. American Zoologist, 27, 41–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Summers, C.H. and Norman, M.F. (1988a) Chronic low humidity stress in the lizard Anolis carolinensis: changes in diurnal corticosterone rhythms. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 247, 271–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Summers, C.H. and Norman, M.F. (1988b) Chronic low humidity stress in the lizard Anolis carolinensis: effects of ovarian and oviductal recrudescence. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 248, 192–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorson, T.B. (1968) Body fluid partitioning in Reptilia. Copeia, 1968, 592–601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, C.R. and Cole, C.J. (1985) Additional notes on requirements of captive whiptail lizards (Cnemidophorus), with emphasis on ultraviolet radiation. Zoo Biology, 4, 49–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tracy, C.R. (1982) Biophysical modeling in reptilian physiology and ecology, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 275–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troyer, K.E. (1984a) Structure and function of the digestive tract of a herbivorous lizard Iguana iguana. Physiological Zoology, 57, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troyer, K.E. (1984b) Diet selection and digestion in Iguana iguana: the importance of age and nutrient requirements. Oecologia, 61, 201–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troyer, K.E. (1987) Small differences in daytime body temperature affect digestion of natural food in a herbivorous lizard (Iguana iguana). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 87A, 623–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ultsch, G.R. and Anderson, J.F. (1986) The respiratory microenvironment within the burrows of gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). Copeia, 1986, 787–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, F.N. (1976) Circulation, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Physiology A, (eds C. Gans and W.R. Dawson), Academic Press, New York, pp. 275–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, S.C. (1991) Interactions between hypoxia and hypothermia. Annual Review of Physiology, 53, 71–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yokota, S.D., Benyajati, S., and Dantzler, W.H. (1985) Renal function in sea snakes I. Glomerular filtration rate and water handling. American Journal of Physiology, 249, R228–36.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, K. and Heatwole, H. (1990) Cutaneous photoreception: a new sensory mechanism for reptiles. Copeia, 1990, 860–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zug, G.A. and Dunson, W.A. (1979) Salinity preference in fresh water and estuarine snakes (Nerodia sipedon and N. fasciata). Florida Scientist, 42, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lillywhite, H.B., Gatten, R.E. (1995). Physiology and functional anatomy. In: Warwick, C., Frye, F.L., Murphy, J.B. (eds) Health and Welfare of Captive Reptiles. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1222-2_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1222-2_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-0403-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-011-1222-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics