Abstract
The present discussion is an attempt to formulate and systematize problems of the methodology of the practical sciences. It will, therefore, be convenient for further discussion to establish in the first place the meaning of the word method1 from which the term methodology is derived. Now, a method is always the method of some kind of human activity. Every activity is a kind of process. Every process is a kind of whole, i.e. a kind of complex object. Every complex object has a structure, which may be understood in either a broader, or a narrower sense. In the broader sense we call a structure the system of relations between the components of a whole; in the narrower sense—it is a set of components of a whole and the system of relations between them. We shall adopt for further discussions this notion of structure, narrower in range but richer in content and, since a given whole may be divided into components according to different criteria (for instance, a living organism may be conceived as composed of organs, or of its right and left parts, or of cells, etc.), whenever we use this term, we should indicate what principle of distinguishing the components of a given whole we have in mind. Thus, we may, for instance, consider the structure, i.e. construction—it is only the matter of what we call it —of a mature insect as consisting of a head, thorax and abdomen, the structure of a pen as consisting of a holder and pen, the structure of a subject-predicate sentence as consisting of subject, predicate and copula and, in another instance, we may, in our mind, divide the insect into tegument, entrails and limbs, the pen into molecules, the sentence into syllables, etc. The sa,me applies to the components of a whole. Indeed, considering a bunch of flowers we may be interested in either the different species of plants in the bunch, or in the different colours of the flowers, and analysing the structure of a clock we may be interested in, e.g., the differences in the size of the clock-hands: the minute hand, the hour hand, and the second hand, or the differences in the speed of their revolutions.
First published in Studia Filozoficzne 1 (74) (1972). Translated by E. Ronowicz.
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References
T. Kotarbiński, ‘O pojęciu metody’ (‘On the Concept of Method’), Warszawa 1957, Zeszyty Wydzialu Filozoficznego Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego 1; by the same author: ‘De la notion de méthode’, Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale 2 (1957).
T. Kotarbiński, ‘Treś|izakres pojęcia metodologii’ (‘The Content and Extension of the Concept of Methodology’), Myśl Filozoficzna 4 (1956).
A similar view is held by J. Zieleniewski. Cf. e.g. Studia Filozoficzne 3/4 (1963) reviews, p. 272; also his work Organizacja zespołów ludzkich (Organization of Human Groups), 3rd edition, 1967, p. 18.
K. Tuchel, ‘Zum Verhältnis von Kybernetik, Wissenschaft und Technik’, Akten des XIV. Internationalen Kongresses für Philosophie, Wien: 2.-9. September 1968, Wien 1968, “Zwar bilden theoretisch-wissenschaftliche Kenntnisse heute in der Regel eine Voraussetzung des technischen Konstruierens, aber um zu einem neuen technischen Gebilde zu gelangen, reicht die Anwendung oder Verwendung dieser Kenntnisse nicht aus. Vielmehr muss das an einem Zweck orientierte schöpferische Vorausdenken hinzukommen, um die neue Gestalt eines technischen Gebildes entstehen za lassen” (p. 583).
Two specializations of a kind are being developed at present in different countries: general methodology and the methodology of engineering or, in other words, of technique or technology. General methodology is developed under the name of General Systems Theory, mainly in the U.S. A by A. Simon and also included in the sphere of cybernetics as initiated by N. Wiener, the problems of which are part of the problems of general methodology, concentrating around relatively isolated systems, feed-back, feeding and information. Cybernetics is being developed at present in other countries as well, including the Soviet Union and Poland, where its exposition has achieved a high degree of formalization in the works of H. Greniewski and M. Mazur. France traditionally is the source of general methodology. We have in mind here certain Cartesian ideas. T. Kotarbinski, ‘Idée de la méthodologie générale’, Travaux de IX-e Congrès International de Philosophie (Congrès Descartes), volume 4, Paris 1937.— By the same author: ‘Les origines de la praxéologie’, Académie Polonaise des Sciences, Centre Scientifique à Paris, Conférences, fascicule 58, Warszawa, PWN, 1965. They contain information on such methodological thinkers as C. Dunoyer, M. Martin, and, above all, E. Espinas. The idea of methodology, understood most generally under this name and in this meaning for the first time in France, was expressed in the collective work edited by R. Caude and A. Moles, entitled Méthodologie, vers une science de l’action, Gauthier-Villars, Paris 1964. This is a very inventive work. In Poland, general methodology is being developed under the name of pra-xiology. T. Kotarbiński, Traktat o dobrej robocie, Ossolineum, Łódź 1955 (English translation: Praxiology: An Introduction to the Sciences of Efficient Action, Oxford and Warsaw 1965). — T. Pszczolowski, Zasady sprawnego dzialania (Principles of Efficient Action), 4th edition, Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa 1967 — J. Zieleniewski, Organizacja zespolów ludzkich, wstęp do teorii organizacji i kierownictwa (Organization of Human Groups, An Introduction to the Theory of Organization and Management), 3rd edition, 1967. — T. Wójcik, ‘Przedmiot, cel, zadania prak-kseologii’ (‘The Subject, Aim, Tasks of Prakseology’), Problemy Organizacji 1, PWE Warszawa 1963. — Z. Kleyff,’ science, Technology and Economics as Integral Parts of Productive Processes’, Akten des XIV. Internationalen Kongresses für Philosophie, Wien: 2-9 September 1968, Wien 1968. — H. Stonert, ‘Analiza logiczna pojęć nauki o dzialaniu’ (‘Logical Analysis of the Concepts of Science on Action’), Prakseologia 27 (1967). — By the same author, ‘Charakterystyka twierdzeń nauk praktycznych w aspekcie metodologicznym’ (‘Characteristics of the Propositions of the Practical Sciences — Methodological Aspect’) Prakseologia 28 (1967). Earlier the idea of general methodology was expressed in a very original way in the work of A. Bogdanow, entitled Tektologia (Tectology), the first part of which was published in the year 1912. This work, which for a long time remained unnoticed, has recently gained the interest of methodologists, being studied now from the historical point of view. Also E. Slucki’s pioneer article entitled ‘Beitrag zur formal-praxeologischen Grundlegung der Oekonomik’, which was published in Zapiski Wydzialu Spoleczno-Ekonomicznego Uniwersytetu w Kijowie 1962, passed unnoticed at first. Some information on methodological works concerning the practical sciences can be found in A. P. Ogurtsov’s article: ‘Praktika kak filosov-skaya problema’ (‘Practice as a Philosophical Problem’), Vprsy filosofii 7 (1967) 91-105. The content of the above-mentioned Akten des XIV. Internationalen Kongresses für Philosophie demonstrates that there has been a considerable development of the problems of specific methodology of technology (understood as the art of engineers) in different countries. This is shown by works such as: J. Agassi, The Logic of Technological Development; Skolimowski, On the Concept of Truth in Science and in Technology, Walentynowicz, On Methodology of Engineering Design’, Zieleniewski, Why “Cybernetics and the Philosophy of Technical Science” only, Zworykin, Technology and the Laws of its Development. See: Akten des XIV. Internationalen Kongresses für Philosophie, Wien: 2.-9. September 1968. The fact that the authors, while trying to give examples or definitions of such methods, actually solve more general problems often strikes the reader of works studying methods specific to engineering: they either give methods applicable in all activities, or methods which can also be applied in fields other than engineering, viz. in all practical sciences as such. A. Adam’s Philosophie der Technik in the above mentioned Akten … can be an example of this. We have the following attempt at a definition of technology there: “Wir konzipieren den Begriff Technik als die zeitliche (t), örtliche (r), und sachliche(x, y) Umwandlung von Etwas (x), in Etwas (x,y), allgemein x(t 1, r 1).+y(t 2, r 2), wobei auch x—y, t 1 t 2, r 1 = r 2 zulässig ist” (p. 479). Mention is due to the following articles in the field of the methodology of engineering: B. Walentynowicz, ‘O istocie działalności inżynierów’ (‘On the Essence of the Activities of Engineers’) Przeglę Elektrotechniczny 5 (1969). — W. Gas-parski, ‘Przyczynek do pojęcia techniki’ (‘A Contribution to the Notion of Technology’), Zagadnienia Naukoznawstwa V (1969).
T. Kotarbinski, ‘Z dziejów pojęcia teorii adekwatnej’ (‘On the History of the Concept of Adequate Theory’) Przegląd Filozoficzny 3 (1937). Reprint: Wybór pism (Selected papers), vol. 2, Warszawa 1958. — By the same author, ‘Petrazyckiego koncepcja twierdzenia adekwatnego na tle dawniejszych doktryn pokrewnych (Petrazycki’s Concept of Adequate Proposition on the Basis of Earlier Related Doctrines), Z zagadnień teorii prawa i teorii nauki Leona Petrazyckiego, Warszawa 1969.
L. Petrazycki, Vvedenie v izuchenie prava i nravstvennosti (An Introduction to the Study of Law and Morality), S.-Peterburg 1903, 3rd ed. 1908.
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Kotarbiński, T. (1977). Concepts and Problems in General Methodology and Methodology of the Practical Sciences. In: Przełęcki, M., Wójcicki, R. (eds) Twenty-Five Years of Logical Methodology in Poland. Synthese Library, vol 87. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-1126-6_16
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