Evolution of Empathy as a Source of Human Altruism

Abstract

The evolution of human cooperativity can be explained to a considerable extent on the basis of “kin selection” and generalized concepts of “reciprocal altruism”. However, it is difficult to subsume empathy, which is a major motive for cooperation and other forms of altruistic behaviour, under these notions. In this paper, it is suggested that cognition-based empathy, perspective-taking linked to vicarious emotions, has evolved as a secondary effect of the evolution of strategic thought. The latter requires the comparative assessment of scenarios according to their emotional desirability, and this depends on representations of one’s own possible future states in one’s brain. Further, efficient strategic thought depends on the representation of possible states of others, to be assessed with respect to emotional quality, allowing for predictions of their behaviour in different possible situations. This is best achieved if representations of others are connected to one’s own emotional centres. Therefore, the evolution of the human brain is assumed to have established the capability of representations with such linkages. Neuroembryological considerations, based on combinatorial and hierarchical features of gene regulation involved in neural development suggest that only a limited amount of genetic change may be required. The resulting increase in the quality of strategic thought increases the fitness of the individual and is thus selected for in evolution.