Abstract
Neural networks which initiate and control the behavior of animals embody several features. One concerns the role of sensory input. At one extreme are networks which mediate actions that are direct responses to sensory input, i.e., reactive or sensory driven actions. At the other are networks which themselves generate the basic activation or movement parameters for the behavior, i.e., activity controlled by central pattern generators. Biological control systems which must produce suitable actions in unpredictable environments, however, usually contain elements of both kinds. A second feature concerns the structure of the control network. In most complex biological networks, control functions, whether sensory-driven or centrally-driven, are dispersed among several subsystems which interact more or less strongly. Both aspects are especially true for walking. Although walking is sometimes regarded as quite a simple behavior, it involves a very strong and complex interaction with the physical environment. Typical control systems involve central pattern generators as well as simple reflexes and more complex sensory-driven modulations of central activity (Cruse et al. 1990). The combination makes the walking system independent of particular stimulus inputs but at the same time enables the walking system to adapt to changes in the environment. The flexible control appears to arise from the cooperation of several control centers.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Bässler, U. (1976). Reversal of a reflex to a single motoneuron in the stick insect Carausius morosus. Biological Cybernetics 24, 47–49.
Bässler, U. (1977). Sensory control of leg movement in the stick insect Carausius morosus. Biological Cybernetics 25, 61–72.
Bässler, U. (1983). Neural basis of elementary behavior in stick insects. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer.
Bässler, U. (1986). On the definition of central pattern generator and its sensory control. Biological Cybernetics 54, 65–69.
Bässler, U. (1993). The femur-tibia control system of stick insects — A model system for the study of the neural basis of joint control. Brain Research Reviews 18, 207–226.
Bässler, U., & U. Wegner (1983). Motor output of the denervated thoracic ventral nerve cord in the stick insect Carausius morosus. Journal of Experimental Biology, 105 127–145.
Beer, R.D., H.J. Chiel, R.D. Quinn, & P. Larson (1992). A distributed neural network architecture for hexapod robot locomotion. Neural Computation 4, 356– 365.
Beer, R.D., R.D. Quinn, H.J. Chiel, & R.E. Ritzmann (1997). Biologically inspired approaches to robotics. Communications of the ACM 40, 31–38.
Brooks, R.A. (1989): A robot that walks: Emergent behavior from a carefully evolved network. Neural Computation 1, 253–262.
Brooks, R.A. (1991). Intelligence without reason. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (1991) (pp. 569–595). Sydney, Australia.
Brown, T.G. (1911). The intrinsic factors in the act of progression in the mammal. Proceedings of the Royal Society 84B, 308–319.
Büschges, A., J. Schmitz, & U. Bässler (1995). Rhythmic patterns in the thoracic nerve cord of the stick insect induced by pilocarpine. Journal of exprimental Biology 198, 435–456
Camhi, J.M. (1984). Neuroethology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Ass. Inc.
Cruse, H. (1976a). On the function of the legs in the free walking stick insect Carausius morosus. Journal of Comparative Physiology 112, 235–262.
Cruse, H. (1976b) The control of the body position in the stick insect (Carausius morosus), when walking over uneven surfaces. Biological Cybernetics 24, 25–33.
Cruse, H. (1979). The control of the anterior extreme position of the hindleg of a walking insect. Physiological Entomology 4, 121–124.
Cruse, H. (1983). The influence of load and leg amputation upon coordination in walking crustaceans: A model calculation. Biological Cybernetics 49, 119–125.
Cruse, H. (1985a). Which parameters control the leg movement of a walking insect? II. The start of the swing phase. Journal of Experimental Biology 116, 357–362.
Cruse, H. (1985b). Coactivating influences between neighbouring legs in walking insects. Journal of Experimental Biology 114, 513–519.
Cruse, H. (1990). What mechanisms coordinate leg movement in walking arthropods? Trends in Neurosciences 13, 15–21.
Cruse, H., & Ch. Bartling (1995). Movement of joint angles in the legs of a walking insect, Carausius morosus. Journal of Insect Physiology 41, 761–771.
Cruse, H., Ch. Bartling, D.E. Brunn, J. Dean, M. Dreifert, T. Kindermann, & J. Schmitz (1995). Walking: a complex behavior controlled by simple systems. Adaptive Behavior 3, 385–418.
Cruse, H., J. Dean, H. Heuer, & R.A. Schmidt (1990). Utilization of sensory information for motor control. In O. Neumann & W. Prinz (eds.), Relationship between action and perception (pp. 43–79). Berlin: Springer.
Cruse, H., U. Müller-Wilm, & J. Dean (1993). Artificial neural nets for a 6-legged walking system. In J.A. Meyer, H.L. Roitblat, & S.W. Wilson (eds.), From animals to animats 2. Journal of Experimental Biology (pp. 52–60). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Cruse, H., & G.M. Silva Saavedra (1996). Curve walking in crayfish. Journal of Experimental Biology 199, 1477–1482
Dean, J. (1990). Coding proprioceptive information to control movement to a target: Simulation with a simple neural network. Biological Cybernetics 63, 115–120.
Dean, J. (1991a). Effect of load on leg movement and step coordination of the stick insect Carausius morosus. Journal of Experimental Biology 159, 449–471.
Dean, J. (1991b). A model of leg coordination in the stick insect, Carausius morosus. I. A geometrical consideration of contralateral and ipsilateral coordination mechanisms between two adjacent legs. Biological Cybernetics 64, 393–402.
Dean, J. (1991c). A model of leg coordination in the stick insect, Carausius morosus. II. Description of the kinematic model and simulation of normal step pattern. Biological Cybernetics 64, 403–411.
Dean, J. (1992a). A model of leg coordination in the stick insect, Carausius morosus. III. Responses to perturbations of normal coordination. Biological Cybernetics 66, 335–343.
Dean, J. (1992b). A model of leg coordination in the stick insect, Carausius morosus. IV. Comparison of different forms of coordinating mechanisms. Biological Cybernetics 66, 345–355.
Dean, J., & G. Wendler (1982). Stick insects walking on a wheel: Perturbations induced by obstruction of leg protraction. Journal of Comparative Physiology 148, 195–207.
Delcomyn, F. (1981). Insect locomotion on land. In CF. Herreid & CR. Fourt-ner (eds.), Locomotion and energetics in arthropods (pp. 103–125) New York: Plenum.
Delcomyn, F. (1985). Factors regulating insect walking. Annual Review of Entomology 30, 239–256.
Espenschied, K.S., R.D. Quinn, H.J. Chiel, & R.D. Beer (1993). Leg coordination mechanisms in the stick insect applied to hexapod robot locomotion. Adaptive Behavior 1, 455–468.
Espenschied, K.S., R.D. Quinn, H.J. Chiel, & R.D. Beer (1994). Biologically-inspired hexapod robot control. Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Robotics and Manufacturing (ISRAM) (pp. 15–17). Maui Inter-Continental Resort-Wailea, Maui, Hawaii, August 6, 15–17.
Espenschied, K.S., R.D. Quinn, H.J. Chiel, & R.D. Beer (1996). Biologically-based distributed control and local reflexes improve rough terrain locomotion in a hexapod robot. Robotics and Autonomous Systems 18, 59–64.
Ferrell, C. (1993). Robust agent control of an autonomous robot with many sensors and actuators. MS thesis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Getting, P.A., & M.S. Dekin (1985). Tritonia swimming: A model system for integration within rhythmic motor systems. In A.I. Seiverston (ed.), Model neural networks and behavior (pp. 3–20). New York, London: Plenum Press.
Graham, D. (1972). A behavioural analysis of the temporal organisation of walking movements in the 1st instar and adult stick insect. Journal of Comparative Physiology 81, 23–52.
Graham, D. (1979). Effects of circum-oesophageal lesion on the behaviour of the stick insect Carausius. II. Changes in walking-coordination. Biological Cybernetics 32, 147–152
Grillner, S., P. Wallén, L. Brodin, & A. Lansner (1991). Neural network generating locomotor behavior in lamprey: Circuitry transmitters membrane properties and simulation. Annual Review of Neuroscience 14, 169–199.
Grillner, S., T. Deliagina, ö. Ekeberg, A. El Manira, R.H. Hill, A. Lansner, G.N. Orlovsky, & P. Wallen (1995). Neural networks that co-ordinate locomotion and body orientation in lamprey. Trends in Neurosciences 18, 270–279.
Houk, J.C., J. Keifer, & A.G. Barto (1993). Distributed motor commands in the limb premotor network. Trends in Neurosciences 16, 27–33.
Kittmann, R., J. Schmitz, & A. Büschges (1996). Premotor interneurons in generation of adaptive leg reflexes and voluntary movements in stick insects. Journal of Neurobiology 31, 512–532.
Kristan, W.B., Jr., S.R. Lockery, G. Wittenberg, & D. Brody (1992). Making behavioral choices with interneurons in a distributed system. In J. Kien, C.R. Mc-Crohan, & W. Winlow (eds.), Neurobiology of motor programme selection (pp. 170–200). New York: Pergamon Press.
Land, M.F. (1972). Stepping movements made by jumping spider during turns mediated by lateral eyes. Journal of Experimental Biology 57, 15–40.
Minsky, M. (1985). The society of mind. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Müller-Wilm, U., J. Dean, H. Cruse, H.J. Weidemann, J. Eltze, & F. Pfeiffer (1992). Kinematic model of a stick insect as an example of a 6-legged walking system. Adaptive Behavior 1, 33–46.
Pearson, K.G. (1972). Central programming and reflex control of walking in the cockroach. Journal for Experimental Biology 56, 173–193.
Pearson, K.G. (1981). Function of sensory input in insect motor systems. Canadian Journal of Physiological Pharmacology 59, 660–666.
Pearson, K.G. (1995). Proprioceptive regulation of locomotion. Current Opinions in Neurobiology 5, 786–791.
Pfeiffer, F., J. Eltze, & H.J. Weidemann (1994). The TUM walking machine. In M. Jamashidi, J. Yuh, Ch. Nguyen, & R. Lumia (eds.), Proceedings of the5th International Symposium on Robotics and Manufacturing 2 (pp. 167–174). New York: ASME Press.
Schmitz, J. (1993). Load-compensation reactions in the proximal leg joints of stick insects during standing and walking. Journal of Experimental Biology 183, 15–33.
Schmitz, J., & A. Büschges (1993). Pilocarpine induced rhythmicity in the thoracic nerve cord of the stick insect. In N. Eisner & M. Heisenberg (eds.), Proceedings of the 21th Göttingen Neurobiology Conference (p. 208). Stuttgart: Thieme.
Schmitz, J., Ch. Bartling, D.E. Brunn, H. Cruse, J. Dean, H. Kindermann, M. Schumm, & H. Wagner (1995). Adaptive properties of “hard-wired” neuronal systems. Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft 88.2, 165 – 179.
Schmitz, J., S. Ernst, & J. Reich (1996). A new intersegmental coordinating influence in the walking system of the stick insect. In N. Eisner & H.-U. Schnitzler (eds.), Brain and Evolution. Proceedings of the 24th Goettingen Neurobiology Conference (p. 129). Stuttgart: Thieme Verlag.
Schmitz, J., & G. Haßfeld (1989). The treading-on-tarsus reflex in stick insects: Phase-dependence and modifications of the motor output during walking. Journal of Experimental Biology 143, 373–388.
Wendler, G. (1964). Laufen und Stehen der Stabheuschrecke Carausius morosus: Sinnesborstenfelder in den Beingelenken als Glieder von Regelkreisen. Zeitschrift für vergleichende Physiology 48, 198–250.
Wendler, G. (1968). Ein Analogmodell der Beinbewegungen eines laufenden Insekts. Kybernetik 1968, Beihefte zu “elektronischen Anlagen” 18, 68–74 (München: Oldenbourg).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Cruse, H. et al. (2000). A Modular Artificial Neural Net for Controlling a Six-Legged Walking System. In: Cruse, H., Dean, J., Ritter, H. (eds) Prerational Intelligence: Adaptive Behavior and Intelligent Systems Without Symbols and Logic, Volume 1, Volume 2 Prerational Intelligence: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Behavior of Natural and Artificial Systems, Volume 3. Studies in Cognitive Systems, vol 26. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0870-9_27
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0870-9_27
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-3792-1
Online ISBN: 978-94-010-0870-9
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive