Abstract
Hodgkin and Katz[l] demonstrated that a large and relatively specific increase in the membrane permeability to sodium ions accounted for the amplitude and rate of voltage change of the depolarization phase of squid nerve action potentials. Using the voltage-clamp technique, Hodgkin and Huxley [2] analyzed the currents underlying the nerve action potential. They described two constituents — an inward sodium flow followed by an outward potassium flow — and formulated equations to describe how these currents vary with transmembrane voltage potential and time.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Hodgkin AL, Katz B: Ionic current underlying activity in the giant axon of the squid. J Physiol (London) 108:37, 1949.
Hodgkin AL, Huxley AF: A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve. J Physiol (London) 117:500, 1952.
Noble D: A modification of the Hodgkin-Huxley equations to Purkinje fibre action and pacemaker potentials. (London). 160:317, 1962.
Coraboeuf E, Otsuka M: L’action des solutions hyposodiques sur les potentials cellulaires de tissu cardiaque de mammiferes. C R Acad Sci 243:441, 1956.
Weidmann S: Electrophysiology. Ann Rev Physiol. 36:155, 1974.
Trautwein W: Membrane currents in cardiac muscle fibers. Physiol Rev 53:793, 1973.
Reuter H: Divalent cations as charge carriers in excitable membranes. Prog Biophs Mol Biol. 26:1, 1973.
Cranefield PF: The conduction of the cardiac impulse. Futura, Mt. Kisco, NY, 1975.
Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, pp 1–521, 1980.
Niedergerke R, Orkand RK: The dependence of the action potential of the frog’s heart on the external and intracellular sodium concentration. J Physiol (London). 184:312, 1966.
Hagiwara S, Nakajima A: Differences in Na and Ca spikes as examined by application of tetrodotoxin, procaine and manganese ions. J Gen Physiol 49:793, 1966.
Reuter H: The dependence of slow inward current in Purkinje fibres on the extracellular calcium concentration. J Physiol (London) 192:479, 1967.
Engstfeld G, Antoni H, Fleckenstein A: Die Restitution der Erregungsfortleitung und Kon- traktionskraft des K+-gelahmten Frosch und Saugertiermyokards durch Adrenalin. Pflueg Arch 273:145, 1961.
Carmeliet E, Vereecke J: Adrenaline and the plateau phase of the cardiac action potential. Importance of Ca+ +, Na+ and K+ conductance. Pflueg Arch 313:300, 1961.
Narahashi T, Moore JW, Scott W: Tetrodotoxin blockade of sodium conductances increase in lobster giant axons. J Gen Physiol 47:965, 1964.
Pappano AJ: Calcium-dependent action potentials produced by catecholamines in guinea pig atrial muscle fibers depolarized by potassium. Circ Res 27:379, 1970.
Thyrum P: Inotropic stimuli and systolic transmembrane calcium flow in depolarized guinea pig atria. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 188:166, 1974.
Watanabe AM, Besch HR Jr: Cyclic adenosin monophosphate modulation of slow calcium influx channels in guinea pig hearts. Circ Res 35:316, 1974.
Watanabe AM, Besch HR Jr: Subcellular myocardial effects of verapamil and D600: Comparison with propranolol. J Pharm Exper Ther 191:241, 1974.
Cranefield PF, Hoffman BF: Conduction of the cardiac impulse: Summation and inhibition. Circ Res 28:220, 1971.
Cranefield PF, Wit AL, Hoffman BF: Conduction of the cardiac impulse III. Characteristics of very slow conduction. J Gen Physiol 59:227, 1972.
Fleckenstein A: Specific inhibitors and promoters of calcium action in the excitation- contraction coupling of heart muscle and their role in the prevention or production of myocardial lesions. In: Calcium and the Heart. Academic Press. New York, 1971.
Antman EM, Stone PH, Mueller JE, Braunwald E: Calcium channel blocking agents in the treatment of cardiovascular disorders. Ann Intern Med 93:875, 1980.
Zipes DP, Mendez C: Action of manganese ions and tetrodoxin on AV nodal transmembrane potentials in isolated rabbit hearts. Circ Res 32:447, 1973.
Garvey HL: The mechanism of action of verapamil on the sinus and AV nodes. Eur J Pharmacol 8:159, 1969.
Zipes DP, Fischer JC: Effects of agents which inhibit the slow channel on sinus node automaticity and atrioventricular conduction in the dog. Circ Res 34:184, 1974.
Wit AL, Cranefield PF: Effect of verapamil on the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes of the rabbit and the mechanism by which it arrests reentrant atrioventricular nodal tachycardia. Circ Res 35:413, 1974.
Brichard G, Zimmerman PE: Verapamil and cardiac dysrhythmias during anesthesia. Br J Anaesth 42:1005, 1970.
Zipes DP, Besch HR Jr, Watanabe AM: Role of the slow current in cardiac electrophysio- logy. Circulation 51:761, 1975.
Wellens HJJ, Tan SL, Bar FWH, Durrer DR, Lie KI, Dohmen HM: Effect of verapamil studied by programmed electrical stimulation of the heart in patients with paroxysmal reentrant supraventricular tachycardia. Br Heart J 39:1058, 1977.
Rinkenberger RL, Zipes DP, Troup PJ, Jackman WM, Prystowsky EN: Clinical and electrophysiologic effects of intravenous and oral verapamil in patients with supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Circulation 62:996, 1980.
Schamroth L, Krikler DM, Garrett C: Immediate effects of intravenous verapamil in cardiac arrhythmias. Br Med J 1:660, 1972.
Gotsman MS, Louis BS, Bakst A, Mitha AS: Verapamil in life-threatening tachyarrhythmias. S Afr Med J 46:2017, 1972.
Gomes J AC, Dhatt MS, Rubenson DS, Damato AN: Electrophysiologic evidence for selective retrograde utilization of a specialized conducting system in atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 43:687, 1979.
Sung RJ, Elser B, McCallister RG: Intravenous verapamil for termination of reentrant supraventricular tachycardia. Ann Intern Med 93:682, 1980.
Gallagher JJ, Pritchett ELC, Sealy WC, Casell J, Wallace AG: The preexcitation syndromes. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 20:285, 1978.
Prystowsky EN, Pritchett ELC, Smith WM, Wallace AG, Sealy WC, Gallagher JJ: Electrophysiologic assessment of the atrioventricular conduction system after surgical correction of ventricular preexcitation. Circulation 59:789, 1979.
Han J, Malozzi AM, Moe GK: Sinoatrial reciprocation in the isolated rabbit heart. Circ Res 22:355, 1968.
Childers RW, Arnsdorf MF, deLafuente D, Gambeta M, Svenson R: Sinus node reentry: Clinical case report and canine studies. Am J Cardiol 31:220, 1973.
Narula OS: A mechanism for supraventricular tachycardia. Circulation 50:1114, 1974.
Wu D, Amat-y-Leon F, Denes P, Dhiugra RC, Pietras RJ, Rosen KM: Demonstration of sustained sinus and atrial reentry as a mechanism of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Circulation 51:234, 1975.
Weisfogel GM, Batsford WP, Paulay KL, Josephson ME, Ogunkelu JB, Akhtar M, Seibes SF, Damato AN: Sinus node reentrant tachycardia in man. Am Heart J 90:295, 1975.
Curry PVL, Krikler DM: Paroxysmal reciprocating sinus tachycardia. In: Reentrant Arrhythmias. University Park Press, Baltimore, pp 39–62, 1977.
Allessi MA, Bonke FIM: Direct demonstration of sinus node reentry in the rabbit heart. Circ Res 44:557, 1979.
Mangiardil M, Hariman RJ, McAllister RG, Bhargava V, Surawicz B, Shabetai R: Electrophysiologic and hemodynamic effects of verapamil. Correlation with plasma drug concentrations. Circulation 57:366, 1978.
Carrasco HA, Fuenmayor A, Barboza JS, Gonzalez G: Effect of verapamil on normal sinoatrial node function and on sick sinus syndrome. Am Heart J 96:760, 1978.
Breithardt G, Seipel L, Wiebringhaus E: Dual effect of verapamil on sinus node function in man. In: The Sinus Node, Bonke FIM, ed. pp 129–138. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1978.
Allessie AM, Bonke FIM, Schoman FJG: Circus movement in rabbit atrial muscle as in mechanism of tachycardia. Circ Res 33:54, 1973.
Allessie MA, Bonke FIM, Schopman FJG: Circus movement in rabbit atrial muscle as a mechanism of tachycardia. The role of nonuniform excitability in the occurrence of unidirectional block, as studied with multiple microelectrodes. Circ Res 39:168, 1976.
Allessie MA, Bonke FIM, Schopman FJG: Circus movement in rabbit atrial muscle as a mechanism of tachycardia. III. The ‘leading circle’ concept: A new model of circus movement in cardiac tissue without the involvement of an anatomical obstacle. Circ Res 41:9, 1977.
Boineau JP, Mooney CR, Hudson RD, Hughes DG, Erdin RA Jr, Wilds AC: Observations on reentrant excitation pathways and the refractory period distributions in spontaneous and experimental atrial flutter in the dog. In: Reentrant Arrhythmias, Kulbertus HE, ed. pp 72–98, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1977.
Wu D, Denes P, Bauernfein R, Kehoe R, Amat-y-Leon F, Rosen KM: Effects of procainamide on atrioventricular nodal reentrant paroxysmal tachycardia. Circulation 57:1171, 1978.
Coumel P, Flammang D, Attuel P, Leckercq JF: Sustained intraatrial reentrant tachycardia. Electrophysiologic study of 20 cases. Clin Cardiol 2:176, 1979.
Allessie MA, Bonke FIM, Lammers WJEP: The effects of carbamylcholine, adrenaline, ouabain, quinidine and verapamil on circus movement tachycardia in isolated segments of rabbit atrial myocardium. In: Reentrant Arrhythmias, Kulbertus HE, ed. pp 63–71, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1977.
Paes de Carvalho A, de Mello WC, Hoffman BF: Electrophysiologic evidence for specialized fiber types in rabbit atrium. Am J Physiol 196:483, 1959.
Hogan PM, Davis LD: Electrophysiological characteristics of canine atrial plateau fibers. Circ Res 28:62, 1971.
Makarycheu VA, Kosharskaya IL, Ulyninsky LS: Automatic activity of the pacemaker cells of the atrioventricular valves in the rabbit heart. Biull Eksp Biol Med. 81:646, 1976.
Bassett AL, Fenoglios JJ Jr, Wit AL, Myerburg RJ, Gelband H: Electrophysiological and ultra structural characteristics of the canine tricuspid valve. Am J Physiol 230:1366, 1976.
Wit AL, Cranefield PF: Triggered activity in cardiac muscle fibers of the simian mitral valve. Circ Res 38:85, 1976.
Wit AL, Fenoglio J J, Hordoff AJ, Reemtsma K: Ultrastructure and transmembrane potentials of cardiac muscle in the human anterior mitral valve leaflet. Circulation 59:1284, 1976.
Wit AL, Cranefield PF: Triggered and automatic activity in the canine coronary sinus. Circ Res 41:435, 1977.
Cranefield PF, Aronson RS: Initiation of sustained rhythmic activity by single propagated action potentials in canine cardiac Purkinje fibers exposed to sodium-free solution or to ouabain. Circ Res 34:477, 1974.
Cranefield PF: Action potentials and arrhythmias. Circ Res 41:415, 1977.
Saito T, Otoguro M, Matsubara T: Electrophysiological studies on the mechanism of electrically induced sustained rhythmic activity in rabbit right atrium. Circ Res 42:199, 1978.
Vassalle EM, Commins N, Castro C, Stuckey JH: The relationship between overdrive suppression and overdrive excitation in ventricular pacemaker in dogs. Circ Res 38:367, 1976.
Rosen MR, Hordof AJ: The slow response in human atrium. In: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V, eds. pp 295–308. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1980.
Goldreyer BN, Gallagher JJ, Damato AN: The electrophysiologic demonstration of atrial ectopic tachycardia in man. Am Heart J 85:205, 1973.
Wyndam CR, Arnsdorf MF, Levitsky S, Smith TC, Dhingra RC, Denes P, Rosen KM: Successful surgical excision of focal paroxysmal atrial tachycardia. Circulation 62:1365,
Pick A, Dominguez P: Nonparoxysmal AV nodal tachycardia. Circulation 16:1022, 1957.
Garson A, Gillette PC: Junctional ectopic tachycardia in children: Electrocardiography, electrophysiology and pharmacologic response. Am J Cardiol 44:298, 1979.
Zipes DP, Gaum WE, Genetos BC, Glassman RD, Noble RJ, Fisch C: Atrial tachycardia without P waves masquerading as an AV junctional tachycardia. Circulation 55:253, 1977.
Rosen MR, Fisch C, Hoffman BF, Danilo P, Lovelace DE, Knoebel SB: Can atrioventricular junctional escape rhythms be explained by delayed after-depolarization. Am J Cardiol 45:1272, 1980.
Moe G, Abildskov JA: Atrial fibrillation as a self-sustaining arrhythmia independent of focal discharge. Am Heart J 58:59, 1969.
Pastelin G, Mendez R, Moe GK: Participation of atrial specialized conduction pathways in atrial flutter. Circ Res 42:386, 1969.
Zipes DP, Troup PJ: New antiarrhythmic agents. Amiodarone, aprindine, disopyramide, ethmozin, mexiletine, tocainide, verapamil. Am J Cardiol 41:1005, 1978.
Carmeliet E: The slow inward current: Non-voltage clamp studies. In: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V, eds. pp 97–110, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1980.
Surawicz B: Depolarization-induced automaticity in atrial and ventricular myocardial fibers. In: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V, eds. pp 375–396, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1980.
Elharrar V, Zipes DP: Voltage modulation of automaticity in cardiac Purkinje fibers. In: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V, eds. pp 300–416, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1980.
Gilmour RF Jr, Zipes DP: Electrophysiologic characteristics of rodent myocardium damaged by adrenaline. Cardiovasc Res 14:582, 1980.
Rosen MR, Danilo P Jr: Digitalis-induced delayed after-depolarizations. In: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V, eds. pp 417–435, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1980.
Kass RS, Tsien RW, Weingart R: Ionic basis of transient inward current induced by strophanthidin in cardiac Purkinje fibers. J Physiol (London) 281:209, 1978.
Elharrar V, Zipes DP: Cardiac electrophysiologic alterations during myocardial ischemia. Am J Physiol 233 (3): H329–H345, 1977.
Elharrar V, Gaum WE, Zipes DP: Effect of drugs on conduction delay and incidence of ventricular arrhythmias induced by acute coronary occlusion in dogs. Am J Cardiol 39:544, 1977.
Schmid JR, Hanna C: A comparison of the antiarrhythmic actions of two new synthetic compounds, iproveratril and MJ1999, with quinidine and pronethalol. J Pharm Exp Ther 156:331, 1967.
Kaumann AJ, Aramendia P: Prevention of ventricular fibrillation induced coronary ligation. J Pharm Exp Ther 164:326, 1968.
Kaumann AJ, Serur JR: Optical isomers of verapamil on canine heart. Naunyn-Schmied- eberg’s Arch Pharm 291:347, 1975.
Fondacaro JD, Han JH, Joon MS: Effects of verapamil on ventricular rhythm during acute coronary occlusion. Am Heart J 96:81, 1978.
Kupersmith J, Shiang H, Litwak RS, Herman MV: Electrophysiologic effects of verapamil in canine myocardial ischemia. Am J Cardiol 37:149A, 1976.
Karlsberg RP, Henry PD, Ahmed SA, Sobel BE, Roberts R: Lack of protection of ischemic myocardium by verapamil in conscious dogs. Eur J Pharm 42:339, 1978.
Nattel S, Pedersen DH, Zipes DP: Alterations in regional myocardial distribution and antiarrhythmic effects of aprindine produced by coronary artery occlusion in the dog. Cardiovasc Res. 15:80, 1981.
Lazzara R, Scherlag BJ: Role of the slow current in the generation of arrhythmias in ischemic myocardium. In: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V, eds. pp 399–416, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1980.
Gilmour RF Jr, Zipes DP: Electrophysiological response of vascularized hamster cardiac transplants to ischemia. Circ Res 50:599, 1982.
Spear JF, Horowitz LN, Moore EN: The slow response in human ventricle. In: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V, eds. pp 309- 326, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1980.
Zipes DP, Foster PR, Troup PJ, Pedersen DH: Atrial induction of ventricular tachycardia: Reentry versus triggered automaticity. Am J Cardiol 44:1, 1979.
Schamroth L, Krickler DM, Garrett C: Immediate effects of intravenous verapamil — cardiac arrhythmias. Br Med J 1:660, 1972.
Filias N: Verapamil — Behandlung bei Herzrhythmusstoriingen. Schweiz. Rundschau Med 3:66, 1974.
Singh BN, Collett JT, Chew CYC: New perspectives in the pharmacologic therapy of cardiac arrhythmias. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 22:243, 1974.
Fazzini PF, Marchi F, Pucci P: Effects of verapamil on ventricular premature beats of acute myocardial infarction. Acta Cardiol 33:25, 1978.
Pickering TG, Goulding L: Suppression of ventricular extrasystole by perhexiline. Br Heart J 40:851, 1978.
Wellens HJJ, Farre J, Bar FW: The role of the slow inward current in the genesis of ventricular tachyarrhythmias in man. In: The Slow Inward Current and Cardiac Arrhythmias. Zipes DP, Bailey JC, Elharrar V, eds. pp 507–514, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1980.
Jolly SR, Gross GJ: Improvement in ischemic myocardial blood flow following a new calcium antagonist. Am J Physiol 239: H163–H171, 1980.
Nakamura M, Kikuchi Y, Senda Y, Yamada A, Koiwaya Y: Myocardial blood flow following experimental coronary occlusion. Effects of diltiazem. Chest 78:205, 1980.
Smith HJ, Singh BN, Nisbet HD, Norris RM: Effect of verapamil on infarct size following experimental coronary occlusion. Cardiovasc Res 9:569, 1975.
Reimer KA, Lower JE, Jennings RB: Effect of calcium antagonist verapamil on necrosis following temporary coronary artery occlusion in dogs. Circulation 55:581, 1977.
Nayler WG, Ferrari R, Williams A: Protective effect of pretreatment with verapamil, nifedipine and propranolol on mitochondrial function in the ischemic and reperfused myocardium. Am J Cardiol 46:242, 1980.
Perez JE, Sobel BE, Henry PD: Improved performance of ischemic canine myocardium in response to nifedipine and diltiazem. Am J Physiol 239: H658, 1980.
Sherman LG, Liang C, Boden WE, Hood WB: The effect of verapamil on mechanical performance of acutely ischemic and reperfused myocardium in the conscious dog. Circ Res 48:224, 1981.
Fleckenstein A: In: Calcium and the Heart, pp 135-138. Academic Press, New York, 1971.
Melville KI, Benfey BG: Coronary vasodilatory and cardiac adrenergic blocking effects of iproveratril. Can J Physiol Pharm 43:339, 1965.
Maseri A, Chierchia S: Coronary vasospasm in ischemic heart disease. Chest 78:210, 1980.
Ribeiro LG, Debauche TL, Brandon TA, Reduto LA, Maroko PR, Miller RR: Verapamil and nifedipine during coronary artery reperfusion: effects of ventricular arrhythmias and regional myocardial blood flow. Clin Res 27:773A, 1979.
Niato M, Kmetzo JJ, Dreifus LS: Prevention of reperfusion-induced ventricular fibrillation by antiarrhythmic agents (abstr.). Circulation (Suppl. II ) 60:88, 1979.
Vincenzi M, Morlino T, Allegri P, Barbieri E, Cappelletti F, Dehio U, Ometto R, Maiolino P: Changes in cardiovascular function induced by verapamil in healthy subjects and in patients with ischemic heart disease. Clin Cardiol 4:15, 1981.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1983 Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zipes, D.P., Gilmour, R.F. (1983). Role of the Slow Inward Current in the Genesis of Cardiac Arrhythmias. In: Rosenbaum, M.B., Elizari, M.V. (eds) Frontiers of Cardiac Electrophysiology. Developments in Cardiovascular Medicine, vol 19. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6781-6_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6781-6_15
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-009-6783-0
Online ISBN: 978-94-009-6781-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive