Abstract
Legumes may feed on three different sources of nitrogen: nitrate, ammonium, and, due to symbiotic N2 fixation, atmospheric dinitrogen. In all three cases ammonium is finally assimilated by the glutamine synthetase (GS)/glutamate synthase (GOGAT) system. NH +4 produced by nitrogenase in symbiosomes of legume nodules is released into the host cell cytosol where it is incorporated into amino acids and amides. The release of NH +4 into the cytosol appears to occur purely by diffusion. Therefore, the activity of the GS/GOGAT enzymes is decicive to avoid product inhibition of nitrogenase by NH +4 . No information is available on the mechanism of xylem loading with amides or ureides, a process that may play a key role in avoiding accumulation of amino acids in infected nodule cells. The same applies to phloem unloading of sucrose. Both transport processes, however, may determine the efficiency of N2 fixation by legumes.
There is no convincing evidence that N2 fixation by legumes is generally limited by energy supply to nodules. On the other hand, N2 fixation is often restricted by environmental constraints. Environmental stresses may limit N2 fixation of legumes at four different levels: Rhizobium (Bradyrhizobium) multiplication in soil, rhizobial infection of roots, nodulation, and N2 fixation. There is increasing evidence that, sufficient infection by effective rhizobial strains provided, N demand of the host plant determines the potential of N2 fixation. Various environmental stresses and supply of mineral N reduce nodulation and nitrogenase activity without affecting total N concentration of the plant tissue. Stress-induced reduction of plant growth, however, results in an accumulation of free amino acids, amides, or ureides in shoots, roots, and nodules which may be responsible for the regulation of nodulation and nitrogenase activity via a feedback system. This implies that enhancement of N2 fixation by legumes can be realized in two different ways: either by improvement of stress resistance and dry matter accumulation or by uncoupling of the feedback control.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Adams F (1981) Nutritional imbalances and constraints to plant growth on acid soils. J Plant Nutr 4: 81–87
Allan S and Raven JA (1987) Intracellular pH regulation in Ricinus communis grown with ammonium or nitrate as N source: The role of long distance transport. J Exp Bot 38: 580–596
Andrew CS (1976) Effect of calcium, pH and nitrogen on the growth and chemical composition of some tropical and temperate pasture legumes. Aust J Agric Res 27: 61–623
Arneke WW (1980) Der Einfluss des Kaliums auf die Komponenten des Wasserpotentials und auf die Wachstumsrate von Phaseolus vulgaris L. Ph. D. thesis, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
Barraclough PB (1986) The growth and activity of winter roots in the field: nutrient uptakes of high-yielding crops. J Agric Sci Camb 106: 45–52
Bashan Y and Levanony H (1989) Effect of root environment on proton efflux in wheat roots. Plant Soil 119: 191–197
Bauer WD (1981) Infection of legumes by rhizobia. Ann Rev Plant Physiol 32: 407–449
Beck T (1983) Die N-Mineralisierung von Böden im Labor-brutversuch. Z Pflanzenernähr Bodenkd 146: 243–252
Berti A, Felle H and Bentrup FW (1984) Amine transport in Riccia fluitans. Cytoplasmic and vacuolar pH recorded by a pH-sensitive microelectrode. Plant Physiol 76: 75–78
Bliss FA (1993) Breeding common bean for improved biological nitrogen fixation. Plant Soil 152: 71–79
Bliss FA (1993) Utilizing the potential for increased nitrogen fixation in common bean. Plant Soil 152: 157–160
Caba JM, Lluch C and Ligero F (1993) Genotypic differences in nitrogen assimilation in Vicia faba: Effect of nitrate. Plant Soil 151: 167–174
Chen CL and Sung JM (1983) The effect of water stress on enzymes of carbon metabolism in cytosol of soybean nodules. J Agric Ass China 121: 28–34
Chloupek O, Babinec J and Malá M (1992) Breeding of lucerne for higher symbiotic nitrogen fixation and testing in hydroponics with limited mineral nitrogen. Bodenkultur 43: 109–113
Danso SKA, Hardarson G and Zapata F (1993) Misconceptions and practical problems in the use of 15N soil enrichment techniques for estimating N2 fixation. Plant Soil 152: 25–52
Da Silva PM, Tsai SM and Bonetti R (1993) Response to inoculation and N fertilization for increased yield and biological nitrogen fixation of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Plaint Soil 152: 123–130
Davies DD (1973) Control of and by pH. Symp Soc Exp Biol 27:513–529
Durand JL, Sheehy JE and Minchin FR (1987) Nitrogenase activity, photosynthesis and nodule water potential in soyabean plants experiencing water deprivation. J Exp Bot 38: 311–321
Elkan GH (1992) Taxonomy of the rhizobia. Can J Microbiol 38: 446–450
Fageria NK, Maligar VC and Wright RJ (1989) Growth and nutrient concentrations of alfalfa and common bean as influenced by soil acidity. Plant Soil 119: 331–333
Feigenbaum S and Mengel K (1979) The effect of reduced light intensity and suboptimal potassium supply on N2 fixation and N turnover in Rhizobium infected lucerne. Physiol Plant 45: 245–249
Felle H (1989) pH as a second messenger in plants. In: Second Messengers in Plant Growth and Development, pp 145–166. Alan Liss Inc. New York
Gerendás J, Ratcliffe RG and Sattelmacher B (1990) 31P nuclear magnetic resonance evidence for differences in intracellular pH in the roots of maize seedlings grown with nitrate or ammonium. J Plant Physiol 13: 125–128
Giaquinta RT, Lin W, Sadler NL and Franceschi VR (1983) Pathway of phloem unloading of sucrose in corn roots. Plant Physiol 72: 362–367
Giller KE and KJ Wilson (1991) Nitrogen Fixation in Tropical Cropping Systems. CAB International, Oxon, UK
Guerin V, Trinchant JC and Rigaud J (1990) Nitrogen fixation (C2H2 reduction) by broad bean (Vicia faba L.) nodules and bacteroids under water-restricted conditions. Plant Physiol 92: 595–601
Hansen AP, Yoneyama T, Kouchi H and Martin P (1993) Respiration and nitrogen fixation of hydroponically cultured Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. OAC Rico and a supernodulating mutant. I. Growth, mineral composition and effect of sink removal. Planta 189: 538–545
Hardarson G (1993) Methods for enhancing symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Plant Soil 152: 1–17
Haynes RJ (1983) Soil acidification induced by leguminous crops. Grass For Sci 38: 1–11
Heber U and Heldt HW (1981) The chloroplast envelope: Structure, function, and role in leaf metabolism. Ann Rev Plant Physiol 32: 139–168
Hodges TK (1973) Ion absorption by plant roots. Agronomy 25: 163–207
Hunt S and Layzell DB (1993) Gas exchange of legume nodules and the regulation of nitrogenase activity. Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 44: 483–511
Lannetta PPM, De Lorenzo C, James EK, Fernandez-Pascual M, Sprent JI, Lucas MM, Witty JF, De Felipe MR and Minchin FR (1993) Oxygen diffusion in lupin nodules. Visualization of diffusion barrier operation. J Exp Bot 44: 1461–1467
Islam AKMS, Edwards DG and Asher CJ (1980) pH optima for crop growth. Results of a flowing solution culture experiment with six species. Plant Soil 54: 339–357
Israel DW and WA Jackson (1978) The influence of nitrogen nutrition on ion uptake and translocation by leguminous plants. In: Andrew CS and Kamprath EJ (eds) Mineral Nutrition of Legumes in Tropical and Subtropical Soils, pp 113–128. CSIRO, Australia
Kleiner D (1981) The transport of NH3 and NH+ 4 across biological membranes. Biochim Biophys Acta 639: 41–52
LaRue TA and Patterson TG (1981) How much nitrogen do legumes fix? Adv Agron 4: 15–38
Lawrie AC and Wheeler CT (1975) Nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of Vicia faba L. in relation to the assimilation of carbon. New Phytol 74: 429–436
Mahler RL and McDole RE (1987) Effect of soil pH on crop yield in northern Idaho. Agron J 79: 751–755
Marschner H and Römheld V (1983) In vivo measurement of root-induced pH changes at the soil-root interface: effect of plant species and nitrogen source. Z Pflanzenphysiol 111: 241–251
Martin P (1990) Einfluß von Mineralstoffen auf das sym-biontische N2-Bindungssystem bei Leguminosen. Kali-Briefe (Büntehof) 20: 93–110
Mengel K (1977) Factors of nutrient availability and their relevance for crop production. In: Proc. of the International Seminar on Soil Environment and Fertility Management in Intensive Agriculture, pp 788–796. Tokyo, Japan
Mengel K (1991) Available nitrogen in soils and its determination by the “Nmin-method” and by electroultrafiltration (EUF). Fert Res 28: 251–262
Mengel K (1994) Impact of the nutrient status of the host plant on symbiotic dinitrogen fixation. Z Pflanzenernähr Bodenkd 157: 233–241
Mengel K and Schubert S (1985) Active extrusion of protons into deionized water by roots of intact maize plants. Plant Physiol 79: 344–348
Mengel K and Steffens D (1982) Beziehung zwischen Kationen/Anionen-Aufnahme von Rotklee und Protonenab-scheidung der Wurzeln. Z. Pflanzenernähr Bodenkd 145: 229–236
Merbach W and Schilling G (1980) Wirksamkeit der symbiontischen N2- Fixierung der Körnerleguminosen in Abhängigkeit von Rhizobienimpfung, Substrat, N-Düngung und 14C-Saccharoselieferung. Zentralbl Bakteriol II Abt 135: 99–118
Minchin FR, Sheehy JE and Minguez MI (1984) Acetylene-induced changes in the oxygen diffusion resistance and nitrogenase activity of legume root nodules. Ann Bot 5: 13–20
Moorby H, Nye PH and White RE (1985) The influence of nitrate nutrition on H+ efflux by young rape plants. Plant Soil 84: 403–415
Mühling KH, Schubert S and Mengel K (1993) Role of plas-malemma H+ ATPase in sugar retention by roots of intact maize and field bean plants. Z Pflanzenernähr Bodenkd 156: 155–161
Munns DN (1986) Acid soil tolerance in legumes and rhizobia. Adv Plant Nutr 2: 63–91
Munns DN, Hohenberg JS, Righetti TL and Lauter DJ (1981) Soil acidity tolerance of symbiotic and nitrogen-fertilized soybeans. Agron 73: 407–410
Parsons R, Stanforth A, Raven JA and Sprent JJ (1993) Nodule growth and activity may be regulated by a feedback mechanism involving phloem nitrogen. Plant Cell Environ 16: 125–136
Peña-Cabriales JJ and Castellanos JZ (1993) Effects of water stress on N2 fixation and grain yield of Phaseolus vulgaris L. Plant Soil 152: 151–155
Peña-Cabriales JJ, Grageda-Cabrera OA and Kola V (1993) Time course of N2 fixation in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Plant Soil 152: 115–121
Peoples MB and Herridge DF (1990) Nitrogen fixation by legumes in tropical and subtropical agriculture. Adv Agron 44: 155–223
Plies-Balzer E (1992) Ertagsleistung, N2-Fixierung und osmotische Anpassung an Wasserstress bei Vicia faba. Ph. D. thesis Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
Plies-Balzer E, Kong T, Schubert S and Mengel K (1994) Effect of water stress on plant growth, nitrogenase activity and nitrogen economy of four different cultivars of Vicia faba L. Eur J Agron (In press)
Raven JA and Smith FA (1976) Nitrogen assimilation and transport in vascular land plants in relation to intracellular pH regulation. New Phytol 76: 415–431
Santos PJA, Edwards DG Asher CJ and Dart PJ (1993) Responses of Bradyrhizobium-inoculated mungbean (Vigna radiata) to applied nitrogen. In: Barrow NJ (ed) Plant Nutrition — From Genetic Engineering to Field Practice, pp 443–446. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands
Schaller G and Fischer WR (1985) pH-Änderungen in der Rhizosphäre von Mais- und Erdnußwurzeln. Z Pflanzenernähr Bodenkd 148: 306–320
Scherer HW and Danzeisen L (1980) Der Einfluß gesteigerter Stickstoffgaben auf die Entwicklung der Wurzelknöllchen, auf die symbiontische Stickstoffassimilation sowie auf das Wachstum und den Ertrag von Ackerbohnen (Vicia faba L.). Z. Pflanzenernähr Bodenkd 143: 464–470
Schubert E, Mengel K and Schubert S (1990) Soil pH and calcium effect on nitrogen fixation and growth of broad bean. Agron J 82: 969–972
Schubert KR, (1986) Products of biological nitrogen fixation in higher plants: Synthesis, transport, and metabolism. Ann Rev Plant Physiol 37: 539–574
Schubert S, Schubert E and Mengel K (1990) Effect of low pH of the root medium on proton release, growth, and nutrient uptake of field beans (Vicia faba). Plant Soil 124: 239–244 (1990)
Serraj R, Drevon JJ, Obaton M and Vidal A (1992) Variation in nitrate tolerance of nitrogen fixation in soybean (Glycine max) — Bradyrhizobium symbiosis. J Plant Physiol 140: 366–371
Serrano R (1989) Structure and function of plasma membrane ATPase. Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 40: 61–94
Sheehy JE, Minchin FR and Witty JF (1983) Biological control of the resistance to oxygen flux in nodules. Ann. Bot 52: 565–571
Shibles R, Anderson IC and Gibson AH (1975) Soybean In: Evans LT (ed) Crop Physiology, pp 151–189. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Smith DL and Krikorian AD (1992) Low external pH prevents cell elongation but not multiplication of embryonic carrot cells. Physiol Plant 84: 495–501
Sprent JI and Sprent P (1990) Nitrogen Fixing Organisms. Pure and Applied Aspects. Chapman and Hall, London, UK
Streeter JG (1985) Nitrate inhibition of legume nodule growth and activity. I Long term studies with a continuous supply of nitrate. Plant Physiol 77: 321–324
Streeter JG (1989) Estimation of ammonium concentration in the cytosol of soybean nodules. Plant Physiol 90: 779–782
Streeter JG (1992) Analysis of apoplastic solutes in the cortex of soybean nodules. Physiol Plant 84: 584–592
Streeter JG (1993) Translocation — A key factor limiting the efficiency of nitrogen fixation in legume nodules. Physiol Plant 87: 616–623
Sung JM and Chen CL (1983) The effect of water stress on enzymes of ammonia assimilation in cytosol of soybean nodules. J Agric Ass China 121: 20–27
Sussman MR and JF Harper (1989) Molecular biology of the plasma membrane of higher plants. Plant Cell 1: 953–960
Thibaud JB and Grignon C (1981) Mechanism of nitrate uptake:in corn roots. Plant Sci Lett 22: 279–289
Tsai SM, Bonetti R, Agba SM and Rossetto R (1993) Minimizing the effect of mineral nitrogen on biological nitrogen fixation in common bean by increasing nutrient levels. Plant Soil 152: 131–138
Ullrich CI and Novacky AJ (1990) Extra- and intracellular pH and membrane potential changes induced by K+, Cl-, H2PO- 4, and NO- 3 uptake and fusicoccin in root hairs of Lim-nobium stoloniferum. Plant Physiol 94: 1561–1567
Uloro Y and Mengel K (1994) Response of ensete (Ensete ven-tricosum W.) to mineral fertilizer applications under representative growth conditions in the vicinity of Hossaina, southwest Ethiopia. Fert Res 37: 107–113
Van Volkenburgh E and Boyer JS (1985) Inhibitory effects of water deficit on maize leaf elongation. Plant Physiol 77: 190–194
Venkatesvarlu B and Rao AV (1987) Quantitative effects of field water deficits on N2 (C2H2) fixation in selected legumes grown in the Indian desert. Biol Fert Soils 5: 18–22
Werner D, Ahlborn B, Bassarab S, Kape F, Kinnback A, Mel-lor RB, Morschel E, Müller P, Parnike M, Schmidt P and Schultes A (1992) Nodule development and nitrogen fixation in the Rhizobium/Bradyrhizobium system. In: Mengel K and Pilbeam DJ (eds) Nitrogen Metabolism of Plants, pp 17–30. Proc Phytochem Soc Europe 33. Oxford Science Publications, UK
Yan F, Schubert S and Mengel K (1992) Effect of low root medium pH on net proton release, root respiration and root growth of corn (Zea mays L.) and broad bean (Vicia faba L.). Plant Physiol 99: 415–421
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1995 Kluwer Academic Publishers
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Schubert, S. (1995). Nitrogen assimilation by legumes — processes and ecological limitations. In: Ahmad, N. (eds) Nitrogen Economy in Tropical Soils. Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences, vol 69. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1706-4_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1706-4_9
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-7264-9
Online ISBN: 978-94-009-1706-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive