Modern Drug Therapy

  • J. Webster
Chapter
Part of the New Clinical Applications Nephrology book series (NCNG)

Abstract

Renal hypertension is not easy to define. Many forms of acute and chronic renal parenchymal and vascular disease may be associated with hypertension. Causation is more difficult to prove. ‘Essential’ hypertension may affect at least 20% of the adult population in Western societies and as a result will frequently coexist with other diseases. Furthermore, sustained hypertension, of whatever cause, results in impaired renal function. In the strictest sense, causation may only be proved if the renal disorder can be shown to precede the development of hypertension, and if the hypertension resolves after removal of the offending kidney or resolution of the renal disorder. This is seldom possible. Hypertension may persist even after removal of the primary renal cause (for example, renal artery stenosis) as a result of irreversible damage in the contralateral kidney or structural changes in resistance vessels. Even in mild uncomplicated essential hypertension, there is evidence to suggest that the primary ‘lesion’ lies in the kidney1. There is clearly a wide spectrum of clinical conditions in which renal perfusion, renal function and systemic blood pressure are closely interrelated.

Keywords

Renal Artery Hypertensive Patient Diabetic Nephropathy Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Renal Artery Stenosis 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. 1.
    de Wardener, H.E. and MacGregor, G.A. (1982). The natriuretic hormone and essential hypertension. Lancet., 1, 1450–54PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Rudnick, K.V., Sackett, D.L., Hirst, S. and Holmes, C. (1977). Hypertension in a family practice. Can. Med. Assoc. J., 117, 492–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Danielsen, H., Kornerup, H.J., Olsen, S.O. and Posburg, V. (1983). Arterial hypertension in chronic glomerulonephritis. An analysis of 310 cases. Clin. Nephrol. 19, 284–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Walker, G.G., Bender, W.L. (1984). Management of endstage renal disease. In Harvey A. McG, Johns, R.J., McKusick, V.A., Owens, A.H., Ross, R.S. The Principles and Practice of Medicine, pp 136–148. Connecticut: Appleton-Century-CroftsGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Dollery, C.T., Beilin, L.J., Bulpitt, C.J., Coles, E.C., Johnson, B.F., Munro-Faure, A.D., Turner, S.C. (1977) Initial care of hypertensive patients. Influence of different types of clinical records. Br. Heart J. 39, 181–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Siamopoulos, K., Sellars, L., Mishra, S.C., Essenhigh, D.M., Robson, V., Wilkinson, R. (1983). Experience in the management of hypertension with unilateral chronic pylonephritis: results in nephrectomy in selected patients. Q. J. Med. 207, 349–62Google Scholar
  7. 7.
    Murray, T., Goldberg, M. (1975). Chronic interstitial nephritis: etiologic factors. Ann. Intern. Med. 82, 453–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Robertson, J.I.S., Morton J.J., Tillman, D.M., Lever, A.F. (1986). The pathophysiology of renovascular hypertension. J. Hypertension., 4, (Suppl. 4), 95–103Google Scholar
  9. 9.
    Goldblatt, H., Lynch, R.F., Hanzai, R.F., Summerville, W. (1934). Studies on experimental hypertension, production of persistent elevation of systolic blood pressure by means of renal ischaemia. J. Exp. Med. 59, 347–79PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Bulpitt, C.J., Beevers, D.G., Butler, A., Coles, E.C., Hunt, D., Munro-Faure, A.D., Newson, R.B., O’Riordan, P.W., Petrie, J.C., Rajagopalan, B., Rylance, P.B., Twallin, G., Webster, J., Dollery, C.T. (1986). The survival of treated hypertensive patients and their causes of death: a report from the DHSS hypertensive care computing project (DHCCP). J. Hypertension., 4, 93–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents, Effects of treatment on morbidity in hypertension—results in patients with diastolic blood pressures averaging 115 through 129mmHg. (1970). J. Am. Med. Assoc. 213, 1143–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on AntihypertensiveAgents, Effects of treatment on morbidity in Hypertension, ii. Results in patients with diastolic blood pressure averaging 90 through 114mmHg. (1970). J. Am. Med. Assoc., 213, 1143–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Smith, D.E., Odel, H.M. and Kernohan, J.W. (1950). Causes of death in hypertension. Am. J. Med. 9, 516–27PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Bulpitt, C.J., Breckenridge, A. (1976). Plasma urea in hypertensive patients. Br. Heart J. 38, 689–94PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Sugimoto, T., Rosansky, S.J. (1984). The incidence of treated end stage renal disease in the Eastern United States: 1973–79. Am. J. Public Health., 74, 14–17PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Wing, A.J., Broyer, M., Brunner, F.P., Challah, S., Donckerwolke, R.A., Gretz, N., Jacobs, C., Kramer, P., Selwood, N.H. (1983). Combined report on regular dialysis and transplantation in Europe, XII 1982. Proc. Eur. Dialy. Transplant. Assoc. — Eur. Renal Assoc. 20, 5–75Google Scholar
  17. 17.
    Brunner, F.P., Broyer, M., Brynger, H., Challah, S., Fassbinder, W., Oules, R., Rizzoni, G., Selwood, N.H., Wing, A.J. (1985). Combined report on regular dialysis and transplantation in Europe, XV 1984. Proc. Eur. Dialy. Transplant. Assoc. — Eur. Renal Assoc. 22, 5–53Google Scholar
  18. 18.
    Nanra, R.S. Druginduced renal disease (1986). Med. Int. 2nd Series., 33, 1366–76Google Scholar
  19. 19.
    Shiel, A., Stewart, J., Johnson, J. (1969). Community treatment of endstage renal failure by dialysis and transplantation from cadaver donors. Lancet., 2, 917–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Kimmelstiel, P., Wilson, C. (1936). Intercapillary lesions in the glomeruli of the kidney. Am. J. Pathol. 12, 83–97PubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Parving, H-H., Andersen, A.R., Smidt, U.M., Svendsen, P.A. (1983). Early aggressive antihypertensive treatment reduces rate of decline in kidney function in diabetic nephropathy. Lancet., 1, 1175–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Taguma, Y., Kitamoto, Y., Futaki, G., Ueda, H., Monma, H., Ishizaki, M., Takahashi, H., Sekino, H., Sasaki, Y. (1985). Effect of captopril on heavy proteinuria in azotemic diabetics. N. Engl. J. Med. 313, 1617–20PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Hommel, E., Parving, H.H., Mathiesen, E., Edsberg, B., Nielsen, M.D., Giese, J. (1986). Effect of captopril on kidney function in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with nephropathy. Br. Med. J. 293, 467–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Bjorck, S., Nyberg, G., Mulec, H., Granerus, G., Herlitz, H., Aurell, M. (1986). Beneficial effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors on renal function in patients with diabetic nephropathy. Br. Med. J. 293, 471–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Shapiro, A.P., Perez-Stable, E., Moutsos, S.E. (1965). Coexistence of renal arterial hypertension and diabetes mellitus. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 192, 813–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Gabriel, R. (1986). Time to scrap creatinine clearance?Br. Med. J. 293, 1119–20Google Scholar
  27. 27.
    Calabrese, G., Vagelli, G. and Cristofano, C. (1982). Behaviour of arterial pressure in different stages of polycystic kidney disease. Nephron, 32, 207–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Mitcheson, H.D., Williams, G., Castro, J.E. (1977). Clinical aspects of polycystic disease of the kidneys. Br. Med. J. 1, 1196–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Reeders, S.T., Breuning, M.H., Corney, G., Jeremiah, S.J., Meera Khan, P., Davies, K.E., Hopkinson, D.A., Pearson, P.L., Weatherall, D.J. (1986). Two genetic markers closely linked to adult polycystic kidney disease on chromosome 16. Br. Med. J. 292, 851–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Duggan, M.L. (1963). Acute renal infarction. J. Urol. 90, 669–776Google Scholar
  31. 31.
    Lessman, R.K., Johnson, S.F., Cobura, J.W., Kaufman, J.S. (1978). Renal artery embolism: Clinical features and long term follow up of 77 cases. Ann. Intern. Med. 89, 477–82PubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Elkik, F., Corvol, P., Idatte, J.M., Menard, J. (1984). Renal segmental infarction: a cause of reversible malignant hypertension. J. Hypertension., 2, 149–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Rudnick, M.R., Maxwell, M.H. (1984). Diagnosis of renovascular hypertension: limitations of renin assays. In Narins, R.G. (ed.) Controversies in Nephrology and Hypertension, pp 128–129. New York: Churchill LivingstoneGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Sellars, L., Shore, A.C., Wilkinson, R. (1985). Renal vein renin studies in renovascular hypertension—do they really help? J. Hypertension., 3, 177–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Mackay, A., Boyle, P., Brown, J.J., Cumming, A.M.M., Forrest, H., Graham, A.G., Lever, A.F., Robertson, J.I.S., Semple, P.F. (1983). The decision on surgery in renal artery stenosis. Q. J. Med. 207, 363–81Google Scholar
  36. 36.
    Geyskes, G.G., Puylaert, C.B.A., Oei, H.Y., Mees, E.J.D. (1983). Follow up study of 70 patients with renal artery stenosis treated by percutaneous transluminal dilatation. Br. Med. J. 287, 333–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Pickering, T.G., Sos, T.A., Vaughan, E.D., Case, D.B., Sealey, J.E., Harshfield, G.A., Laragh, J.H. (1984). Predictive value and changes of renal secretion in hypertensive patients with unilateral renovascular disease undergoing successful renal angioplasty. Am. J. Med. 76, 398–404PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Eyler, W.R., Clark, M.D., Garman, J.E., Rian, R.L., Meininger, D.E. (1962). Angiography of the renal areas including a comparative study of renal arterial stenosis in patients with and without hypertension. Radiology., 78, 879–91PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Holley, K.E., Hunt, J.C., Brown, A.L. (1964). Renal artery stenosis—a clinical pathological study in normotensive and hypertensive patients. Am. J. Med. 37, 14–22PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Isles, C.J. (1987). Personal communicationGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Sos, T.A., Pickering, T.G., Sniderman, K., Saddekin, S., Case, D.B., Silane, M.F., Vaughan, E.D. and Laragh, J.H. (1983). Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty in renovascular hypertension due to atheroma or fibromuscular dysplasia. N. Engl. J. Med. 309, 274–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Schreiber, M.J., Novick, A.C., Pohl, M.A. (1981). The natural history of atherosclerotic and fibrous renal artery disease. Kidney Int., 19, 175Google Scholar
  43. 43.
    Hunt, J.C., Strong, C.G. (1973). Renovascular hypertension—mechanisms, natural history and treatment. Am. J. Cardiol. 32, 562–74PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Pickering, T.G., Sos, T.A., Orenstein, A., Laragh, J.H. (1986). 11th Scientific Meeting of International Society of Hypertension, Abstract 1099Google Scholar
  45. 45.
    Sniderman, K.W., Sos, T.A. (1982). Percutaneous transluminal recanalisation and dilatation of totally occluded renal arteries. Radiology., 142, 607–10PubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Pickering, Tg., Sos, T.A., Laragh, J.H. (1984). Role of balloon dilatation in the treatment of renovascular hypertension. Am. J. Med. 11 (Suppl. 2A), 61–6Google Scholar
  47. 47.
    Shaw, A.B., Gopalka, S.K. (1982). Renal artery thrombosis caused by antihypertensive treatment. Br. Med. J. 285, 1617CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Hoefnagels, W.H.L., Thien, T. (1986). Renal artery occlusion in patients with renovascular hypertension treated with Captopril. Br. Med. J. 292, 24–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Hricik, D.E., Browning, P.J., Kopelman, R., Goorno, W.E., Madias, N.E., Dzau, V.J. (1983). Captopril-induced functional renal insufficiency in patients with bilateral renal artery stenosis or renal artery stenosis in a solitary kidney. N. Engl. J. Med. 308, 373–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Watson, M.L., Bell, G.M., Muir, A.L., Buist, T.A.S., Kellett, R.J., Padfield, P.L. (1983). Captopril/diuretic combination in severe renovascular disease: a cautionary tale. Lancet., 2, 404–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Wenting, G.J., Tan-Tjiong, H.L., Derkx, F.H.M., de Bruyn, J.H.B. Man in’t Veld AJ and Schalekamp MADH. (1984). Split renal function after Captopril in unilateral renal artery stenosis. Br. Med. J. 288, 886–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Ishikawa, K. (1978). Natural history and classification of occlusive thrombo-arteropathy (Takayasu’s disease). Circulation., 57, 27–35PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Thurm, R.H., Alexander, J.C. (1984). Captopril in the treatment of scleroderma renal crisis. Arch. Intern. Med. 144, 733–5Google Scholar
  54. 54.
    Traub, Y.M., Shapiro, A.P., Rodman, G.P., Medsger, T.A., McDonald, R.H., Steen, U.D., Osial, T.A., Tolchin, S.F. (1983). Hypertension and renal failure (scleroderma renal crisis) in progressive systemic sclerosis. Medicine., 62, 335–52PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Hodsman, G.P., Robertson, J.I.S. (1983). Captopril: five years on. Br. Med. J., 287, 851–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Todd, P.A., Heal, R.C. (1986). Enalapril: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in hypertension and congestive heart failure. Drugs., 31, 198–248PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Case, D.B., Wallace, J.M., Keim, J.H., Weber, M.A., Sealey, J.E., Laragh, J.H. (1977). Possible role of renin in hypertension as suggested by renin-sodium profiling and inhibition of converting enzyme. N. Engl. J. Med. 296, 641–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Man in’t Veld, A.J., Schicht, I.M., Derkx, F.H.M., de Bruyn, J.H.B., Schalekamp, M.A.D.H. (1980). Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (Captopril) on blood pressure. Br. Med. J. 280, 288–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Thurston, H., Swales, J.D. (1977). Blood-pressure response of nephrectomised hypertensive rats to converting enzyme inhibitors: evidence for persisting vascular renin activity. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 53, 299–304Google Scholar
  60. 60.
    Leading article. (1980). Captopril: benefits and risks in severe hypertension. Lancet., 2, 129–30Google Scholar
  61. 61.
    Dombey, S. (1983). Optimal dosage of Captopril in hypertension. Lancet., 1, 529PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Isles, C.G. Hodsman, G.P., Robertson, J.I.S. (1983). Side effects of Captopril. Lancet., 1, 355PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    McFate Smith, W., Kulaga, S.F., Moncloa, F., Pingeon, R., Walker, J.F. (1984). Overall tolerance and safety of enalapril. J. Hypertension 2 (Suppl. 2), 113–17Google Scholar
  64. 64.
    Hodsman, G.P., Isles, C.G., Murray, G.D., Usherwood, T.P., Webb, D.J., Robertson, J.I.S. (1983). Factors related to first dose hypotensive effect of Captopril: prediction and treatment. Br. Med. J. 286, 832–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Webster, J., Newnham, D.M., Petrie, J.C. (1985). Initial dose of enalapril in hypertension. Br. Med. J. 290, 1623–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Webster, J., Newnham, D., Robb, O.J., Petrie, J.C. (1987). Antihypertensive effect of single doses of enalapril in hypertensive patients treated with bendro-fluazide. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 23, 151–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Cleland, J.G.F., Dargie, HJ., McAlpine, H., Ball, S.G., Morton, J.J., Robertson, J.I.S., Ford, I. (1985). Severe hypotension after first doses of enalapril in heart failure. Br. Med. J. 291, 1309–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Curtis, J.J., Luke, R.G., Whelchel, J.D., Diethelm, A.G., James, P., Dustan, H.P. (1983). Inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme in renal transplant recipients with hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med. 308, 377–81PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Ghione, S., Fommei, E., Palombo, C., Giaconi, S., Mantovanelli, A., Ragawzini, A., and Palla, L. (1985–86). Kidney scintigraphy after ACE inhibition in the diagnosis of renovascular hypertension. Uraemia Invest., 9, 211–15Google Scholar
  70. 70.
    Silas, J.H., Klenka, Z., Solomon, S.A., Bone, J.M. (1983). Captopril induced reversible renal failure: a marker of renal artery stenosis affecting a solitary kidney. Br. Med. J. 286, 1702–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Enalapril in Hypertension Study Group (UK). Enalapril in essential hypertension: a comparative study with propranolol. (1984). Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 18, 51–6Google Scholar
  72. 72.
    Webster, J., Petrie, J.C., Robb, O.J., Trafford, J., Burgess, J., Richardson, P.J., Davidson, C., Fairhurst, G., Vandenberg, M.J., Cooper, W.D., Arr, S.M., Kimber, G. (1986). Enalapril in moderate to severe hypertension: a comparison with atenolol. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21, 489–95PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Croog, S.H., Lewis, S., Testa, M.A., Brown, B., Bulpitt, C.J., Jenkins, D., Kleman, G.L., Williams, G.H. (1986). The effects of antihypertensive therapy on the quality of life. N. Engl. J. Med. 314, 1657–64PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Tillman, D.M., Malatino, L.S., Cumming, A.M.M., Hodsman, G.P., Leckie, B.J., Lever, A.F., Morton, J.J., Webb, D.J., Robertson, J.I.S. (1984). Enalapril in hypertension with renal artery stenosis: long-term follow-up and effects on renal function. J. Hypertension 2 (Suppl. 2), 93–100Google Scholar
  75. 75.
    Nayler, W.G., Mclnnes, J., Swann, J.B., Carson, V., Lowe, T.E. (1967). Effects of propranolol, a beta-adrenergic antagonist, on blood flow in the coronary and other vascular fields. Am. Heart J. 73, 207–16PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Ibsen, H., Sederberg-Olsen, P. (1973). Changes in glomerular filtration rate during long-term treatment with propranolol in patients with arterial hypertension. Clin. Sci. 44, 129–34PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Pritchard, B.N.C., Gillam, P.M.S. (1969). Treatment of hypertension with propranolol. Br. Med. J. 1, 7–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Warren, D.J., Swainson, C.P., Wright, N. (1974). Deterioration in renal function after beta-blockade in patients with chronic renal failure and hypertension. Br. Med. J. 2, 193–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Robb, O.J., Petrie, J.C., Webster, J., Harry, J. (1985). ICI 118551 does not reduce BP in hypertensive patients responsive to atenolol and propranolol. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 19, 541–2Google Scholar
  80. 80.
    Deacon, S.P., Barnett, D. (1976). Comparison of atenolol and propranolol during insulin-induced hypoglycaemia. Br. Med. J. 2, 272–3PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Lager, I., Blomhme, G., Smith, H. (1979). Effect of cardioselective and nonselective –blockade on the hypoglycaemic response in insulin-dependent diabetes. Lancet., 1, 458–62PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Jeffers, T.A., Webster, J., Petrie, J.C., Barker, N.P. (1977). Atenolol once-daily in hypertension. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 4, 523–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Webster, J., Petrie, J.C., Robb, O.J., Jamieson, M., Verschueren, J. (1985). A comparison of single doses of bucindolol and Oxprenolol in hypertensive patients. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 20, 393–400PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Bannan, L.T. and Beevers, D.G. (1981). Emergency treatment of high blood pressure with oral atenolol. Br. Med. J., 282, 1757–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Pritchard, B.N.C. Beta-adrenoceptor blocking agents. In Abshagen, U. (Ed.) Clinical Pharmacology of Antianginal Drugs Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol. 76, pp. 385–485. (Berlin: Springer)Google Scholar
  86. 86.
    Lowenthal, D.T. (1977). Pharmacokinetics of propranolol, quinidine, procainamide and lidocaine in chronic renal disease. Am. J. Med. 62, 532–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Johnsson, G., Regardh, C-G. (1976). Clinical pharmacokinetics of –adrenoceptor blocking drugs. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1, 233–63PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Sorkin, E.M., Clissold, S.P., Brogden, R.N. (1985). Nifedipine: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in ischaemic heart disease, hypertension and related cardiovascular disorders. Drugs., 30, 182–274PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Lee, S.M., Williams, R., Warnock, D., Emmett, M., Wolbach, R.A. (1986). The effects of nicardipine in hypertensive subjects with impaired renal function. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 22, 297–306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Diamond, J.R., Cheung, J.Y., Fang, L.S.T. (1984). Nifedipine-induced renal dysfunction. Am. J. Med. 77, 905–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Mroczek, W.J., Leibel, B.A., Davidov, M., Finnerty, F.A. (1971). The importance of the rapid administration of diazoxide in accelerated hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med. 285, 803–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Ledingham, J.G.G., Rajagopalan, B. (1979). Cerebral complications in the treatment of accelerated hypertension. Q. Med. J. 48, 25–41Google Scholar
  93. 93.
    Thien, T.A., Huysmans, F.T.M., Gerlag, P.G.G., Koene, R.A.P., Wijdeveld, P.G.A.B. (1979). Diazoxide infusion in severe hypertension and hypertensive crisis. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 25, 795–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    O’Malley, K., Velasco, M., Pruitt, A., McNay, J.L. (1975). Decreased plasma protein binding of diazoxide in uraemia. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 18, 53–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Koch-Weser, J. (1976). Diazoxide. N. Engl. J. Med. 294, 1271–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Bennett, W.H., McDonald, W.J., Kuehnel, E., Hartnett, M.H., Porter, G.A. (1977). Do diuretics have antihypertensive properties independent of natriuresis? Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 22, 499–504PubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Tobian, L. (1967). Why do thiazide diuretics lower blood pressure in essential hypertension? Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. 7, 399–408PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Webster, J. (1985). Interactions of NSAIDs with diuretics and β-blockers. Mechanisms and clinical implications. Drugs., 30, 32–41Google Scholar
  99. 99.
    Jones, B. and Nanra, R.S. (1979). Double-blind trial of antihypertensive effects of chlorothiazide in severe renal failure. Lancet., 2, 1258–60PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Ram, C.V.S., Garrett, B.N., Kaplan, W.M. (1981). Moderate sodium restriction and various diuretics in the treatment of hypertension: effect of potassium wastage and blood pressure control. Arch. Intern. Med. 141, 1015–19PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Weiner, I.M., Mudge, G.H. (1985). Diuretics and other agents employed in the mobilisation of edema fluid. In Gilman, A.G., Goodman, L.S., Rail, T.W., Murad, F. (Eds.) The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 7th Edn., pp. 887–907. New York: MacmillanGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Sorkin, E.M., Brogden, R.N., Romankiewicz, J.A. (1984). Intravenous glyceryl trinitrate (Nitroglycerin). A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs., 27, 45–80PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Cameron, H.A., Ramsay, L.E. (1984). The lupus syndrome induced by hydralazine: a common complication with lower dose treatment. Br. Med. J. 289, 410–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    McAreavey, D., Ramsay, L.E., Latham, L., McLaren, A.D., Lorimer, A.R., Reid, J.L., Robertson, J.I.S., Robertson, M.P., Weir, R.J. (1984). “Third drug” trial: comparative study of antihypertensive agents added to treatment when blood pressure remains uncontrolled by a beta blocker plus thiazide diuretic. Br. Med. J. 288, 106–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Talseth, T. (1976). Studies on hydralazine. II Elimination rate and steady-state concentration in patients with impaired renal function. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 10, 311–17PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Webster, J., Jeffers, T.A., Galloway, D.B., Petrie, J.C., Barker, N.P. (1977). Atenolol, methyldopa and chlorthalidone in moderate hypertension. Br. Med. J. 1, 76–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Myhre, E., Rugstad, H.E., Hansen, T. (1982). Clinical pharmacokinetics of methyldopa. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 7, 221–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Dargie, H.J., Dollery, C.T., Daniel, J. (1977). Minoxidil in resistant hypertension. Lancet., 2, 515–18PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Devine, B.L., Fife, R., Trust, P.M. (1977). Minoxidil for severe hypertension after failure of other hypotensive drugs. Br. Med. J. 2, 667–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Lowenthal, D.T., Affrime, M.B. (1980). Pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of minoxidil. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 2 (Suppl. 2), S93-S106PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Page, I.H., Corcoran, A.C., Dunstan, H.P., Koppanyi, T. (1955). Cardiovascular action of sodium nitroprusside in animals and hypertensive patients. Circulation., 11, 188–98PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    Russell, G.I., Bing, R.F., Swales, J.D. (1978). Sodium nitroprusside and renovascular hypertension. Br. Med. J. 2, 14PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Stanaszek, W.F., Kellerman, D., Brogden, R.N. and Romankiewicz, J.A. (1983). Prazosin update. A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in hypertension and congestive heart failure. Drugs., 25, 339–84PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Collier, J.C., Lorge, R.E., Robinson, B.F. (1978). Comparison of effects of tolmesoxide (RX 71107) diazoxide, hydralazine, prazosin, glyceryl trinitrate and sodium nitroprusside on forearm arteries and dorsal hand veins of man. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.5, 35–44PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Graham, R.M., Thornell, J.R., Gain, J.M., Bagnoli, C., Oates, H.F., Stokes, G.S. (1976). Prazosin: The first dose phenomenon. Br. Med. J. 2, 1293PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Velasco, M., Silva, H., Morillo, J., Pellieir, R., Urbina-Quintana, A., Hernandez-Pieretti, O. (1981). Effect of prazosin on blood lipids and on thyroid function in hypertensive patients. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 3, (Suppl. 3), 193–7Google Scholar
  117. 117.
    Stokes, G.S., Monaghan, J.C., Frost, G.W., MacCarthy, E.P. (1979). Responsiveness to prazosin in renal failure. Clin. Sci. 57, 383–5Google Scholar
  118. 118.
    Chin, D.K.F., Ho, A.K.C., Tse, C.Y. (1986). Neuropsychiatric complications related to use of prazosin in patients with renal failure. Br. Med. J. 293, 1347CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Lee, C.C., Marburg, T.C. (1984). Drug therapy in patients undergoing haemo-dialysis. Clinical pharmacokinetic considerations. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 9, 42–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    Kuntzinger, H., Pouthier, D., Belluci, A. (1986). Treatment of hypertension with lisinopril in endstage renal failure. 11th Scientific Meeting of the International Society of Hypertension, Abstract No 532Google Scholar

Copyright information

© MTP Press Limited 1988

Authors and Affiliations

  • J. Webster

There are no affiliations available

Personalised recommendations