Abstract
Forests play an important role in the mitigation of climate change, and store substantial amounts of carbon (C). The living biomass contains 363 Pg C and the soils an additional 426 Pg C. Given that forests annually exchange about sevenfold more carbon dioxide (CO2) with the atmosphere by photosynthesis and respiration than is emitted by burning of fossil fuels (currently 9.1 Pg C), the role of forests in the global C cycle is significant. Land-use change contributes 10 % or 1.1 Pg C to the annual CO2-emissions and leads to significant changes in the C pool. Presently, the temperate forests are a C sink because the forest area increases annually by between 0 and 0.5 %, and the productivity of forests is increasing. Deforestation in the tropical zone is a source of CO2. Ecosystem disturbances such as storm damages and insect infestations are causing economic loss, and destruction of forests leads to the loss of numerous ecosystem services. Disturbances are partially a component of natural ecosystem dynamics, partially they are triggered by climate-change effects, and partly by changes in forest management. The different effects are often difficult to disentangle. Foresters respond to climate change by developing strategies of adaptative forest management. The opinion on successful concepts is still unconsolidated, both due to differences in the anticipation of the extent of climate change, and due to different opinions on the resilience of different forest types. Simulation models and manipulative experiments are important tools for the development of strategies of adaptive forest management. With respect to the role of forests in the global C cycle two opposing opinions exist. Firstly, it is possible to focus on C sequestration in standing forests, alternatively, forest biomass can be intensively used in order to provide timber for the substitution of other materials, and forest biomass for energy. From a forester’s perspective the active management of forests offers more opportunities than management towards old-growth forests with maximized C stocks in the standing biomass. Intensive forest management needs to follows the principles of sustainability. This paradigm is instrumental in forest politics. The use of criteria and indicators help to approximate and maintain a desired status of forest ecosystems.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Amann G, Schennach R, Kessler J, Maier B, Terzer S (2010) Handbuch der Vorarlberger Wald-gesellschaften – Gesellschaftsbeschreibungen und waldbaulicher Leitfaden. Landesregierung Vorarlberg
Anderson RG, Canadell JG, Randerson JT, Jackson RB, Hungate BA, Baldocchi DD, Ban-Weiss GA, Bonan GB, Caldeira K, Cao L, Diffenbaugh NS, Gurney KR, Kueppers LM, Law BE, Luyssaert S, O’Halloran TL (2010) Biophysical considerations in forestry for climate protection. Front Ecol Environ 9(3):174–182
Assmann E (1961) Waldertragskunde – Organische Produktion, Struktur, Zuwachs und Ertrag von Waldbeständen. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, München
Baldocchi DD (2003) Assessing the eddy covariance technique for evaluating carbon dioxide exchange rates of ecosystems: past, present and future. Glob Change Biol 9:479–492
Beck W (2010) Auswirkungen von Trockenheit und Hitze auf den Waldzustand in Deutschland – waldwachstumskundliche Ergebnisse der Studie im Auftrag des BMEL. In: DVFFA– Sektion Ertragskunde, Jahrestagung, 2010
Beniston M, Stoffel M, Hill M (2011) Impacts of climatic change on water and natural hazards in the Alps: can current water governance cope with future challenges? Examples from the European ACQWA project. Environ Sci Policy 14(7):734–743
Blumenthal D, Mitchell CE, Pyšek P, Jarošík V (2009) Synergy between pathogen release and resource availability in plant invasion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(19):7899–7904
Bonan GB (2008) Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science 320:1444–1449
Bronson DR, Gower ST, Tanner M, Linder S, Van Herk I (2008) Response of soil surface CO2 flux in a boreal forest to ecosystem warming. Glob Change Biol 14:856–867
Büchsenmeister R (2011) Waldinventur 2007/09: Betriebe und Bundesforste nutzen mehr als den Zuwachs. BFW-Praxisinformation 24:6–9
Butterbach-Bahl K, Nemitz E, Zaehle S (2011) Nitrogen as a threat to the European greenhouse balance. In: The European nitrogen assessment, chap 19. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 434–462
Calfapietra C, Ainsworth EA, Beier C, Angelis PD, Ellsworth DS, Godbold DL, Hendrey GR, Hickler T, Hoosbeek MR, Karnosky DF, King J, Körner C, Leakey AD, Lewin KF, Liberloo M, Long SP, Lukac M, Matyssek R, Miglietta F, Nagy J, Norby RJ, Oren R, Percy KE, Rogers A, Mugnozza GS, Stitt M, Taylor G, Ceulemans R (2010) Challenges in elevated CO2 experiments on forests. Trends Plant Sci 15(1):5–10
Certini G (2005) Effects of fire on properties of forest soils: a review. Oecologia 143:1–10
Ciais P, Reichstein M, Viovy N, Granier A, Ogé J, Allard V, Aubinet M, Buchmann N, Bernhofer C, Carrara A, Chevallier F, Noblet ND, Friend AD, Friedlingstein P, Grünwald T, Heinesch B, Keronen P, Knohl A, Krinner G, Loustau D, Manca G, Matteucci G, Miglietta F, Ourcival JM, Papale D, Pilegaard K, Rambal S, Seufert G, Soussana JF, Sanz MJ, Schulze ED, Vesala T, Valentini R (2005) Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003. Nature 437:529–533
Davidson E, Nepstad D, Yoko Ishida F, Brando P (2008) Effects of an experimental drought and recovery on soil emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and nitric oxide in a moist tropical forest. Glob Change Biol 14:2582–2590
Denman K, Brasseur G, Chidthaisong A, Ciais P, Cox P, Dickinson R, Hauglustaine D, Heinze C, Holland E, Jacob D, Lohmann U, Ramachandran S, da Silva Dias P, Wofsy S, Zhang X (2007) Couplings between changes in the climate system and biogeochemistry. In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt K, Tignor M, Miller H (eds) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK/New York, pp 500–587
Dixon R, Brown S, Houghton R, Solomon A, Trexler M, Wisniewski J (1994) Carbon pools and flux of global forest ecosystems. Science 263:185–190
Dodds KJ, Orwig DA (2011) An invasive urban forest pest invades natural environments – Asian longhorned beetle in northeastern US hardwood forests. Can J For Res 41(9):1729–1742
Don A, Schumacher J, Freibauer A (2011) Impact of tropical land-use change on soil organic carbon stocks? A meta-analysis. Global Change Biol 17(4):1658–1670
Drever CR, Peterson G, Messier C, Bergeron Y, Flannigan M (2006) Can forest management based on natural disturbances maintain ecological resilience? Can J For Res 36(9):2285–2299
Eglin T, Ciais P, Piao SL, Barre P, Bellassen V, Cadule P, Chenu C, Gasser T, Koven C, Reichstein M, Smith P (2010) Historical and future perspectives of global soil carbon response to climate and land-use changes. Tellus B 62(5):700–718
Engesser R, Forster B, Meier F, Wermlinger B (2008) Forstliche Schadorganismen im Zeichen des Klimawandels. Schweiz Z For 159(10):344–351
Enquist BJ, Niklas KJ (2002) Global allocation rules for patterns of biomass partitioning in seed plants. Science 295:1517–1520
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (ed) (2006) Global forest resources assessment 2005. Progress towards sustainable forest management, FAO forestry papers, vol 147. FAO, Rome
Franklin JF, Spies TA, Pelt RV, Carey AB, Thornburgh DA, Berg DR, Lindenmayer DB, Harmon ME, Keeton WS, Shaw DC, Bible K, Chen J (2002) Disturbances and structural development of natural forest ecosystems with silvicultural implications, using Douglas-fir forests as an example. For Ecol Manage 155:399–423
Friedlingstein P, Cox P, Betts R, Bopp L, von Bloh W, Brovkin V, Cadule P, Doney S, Eby M, Fung I, Bala G, John J, Jones C, Joos F, Kato T, Kawamiya M, Knorr W, Lindsay K, Matthews HD, Raddatz T, Rayner P, Reick C, Roeckner E, Schnitzler KG, Schnur R, Strassmann K, Weaver AJ, Yoshikawa C, Zeng N (2006) Climate-carbon cycle feedback analysis: results from the C4MIP model intercomparison. J Clim 19:3337–3353
Friedlingstein P, Houghton RA, Marland G, Hackler J, Boden TA, Conway TJ, Canadell JG, Raupach MR, Ciais P, Quéré CL (2010) Update on CO2 emissions. Nat Geosci 3:811–812
Führer E (2000) Forest functions, ecosystem stability and management. For Ecol Manage 132:29–38
Gange AC, Gange EG, Mohammad AB, Boddy L (2011) Host shifts in fungi caused by climate change? Fungal Ecol 4(2):184–190
Gardiner B, Blennow K, Carnus JM, Fleischer P, Ingemarson F, Landmann G, Lindner M, Marzano M, Nicoll B, Orazio C, Peyron JL, Reviron MP, Schelhaas MJ, Schuck A, Spielmann M, Usbeck T (2010) Destructive storms in European forests: past and forthcoming impacts. EFI, Joensuu
Hagedorn F, Martin M, Rixen C, Rusch S, Bebi P, Zürcher A, Siegwolf RTW, Wipf S, Escape C, Roy J, Hättenschwiler S (2010) Short-term responses of ecosystem carbon fluxes to experimental soil warming at the Swiss alpine treeline. Biogeochemistry 97:7–19
Hanewinkel M, Breidenbach J, Neeff T, Kublin E (2008) Seventy-seven years of natural disturbances in a mountain forest area – the influence of storm, snow, and insect damage analysed with a long-term time series. Can J For Res 38(8):2249–2261
Harmon ME (2001) Carbon sequestration in forests. J For 4:24–29
Heimann M, Reichstein M (2008) Terrestrial ecosystem carbon dynamics and climate feedbacks. Nature 451:289–292
Heinimann HR (2010) A concept in adaptive ecosystem management–an engineering perspective. For Ecol Manage 259(4):848–856
Hoffmann AA, Sgrò CM (2011) Climate change and evolutionary adaptation. Nature 470:479–486
Holling CS (1973) Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 4:1–23
Holling CB (1978) Adaptive environmental assessment and management. John Wiley & Sons, London
Houghton R (2008) Carbon flux to the atmosphere from land-use changes: 1850–2005. Trends: a compendium of data on global change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
IPCC (2011) Summary for policymakers. In: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change special report on managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK/New York
IPCC (2012) Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. A special report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK/New York
Jarvis P, Linder S (2000) Constraints to growth of boreal forests. Nature 405:904–905
Jonášová M, Vávrová E, Cudlín P (2010) Western Carpathian mountain spruce forest after a windthrow: natural regeneration in cleared and uncleared areas. For Ecol Manage 259(6):1127–1134
Kapeller S, Lexer MJ, Geburek T, Hiebl J, Schueler S (2012) Intraspecific variation in climate response of Norway spruce in the eastern alpine range: selecting appropriate provenances for future climate. For Ecol Manage 271:46–57
Kaplan JO, Krumhardt KM, Zimmermann N (2009) The prehistoric and preindustrial deforestation of Europe. Quat Sci Rev 28(27–28):3016–3034
Karhu K, Wall A, Vanhala P, Liski J, Esala M, Regina K (2011) Effects of afforestation and deforestation on boreal soil carbon stocks – comparison of measured C stocks with Yasso07 model results. Geoderma 164(1–2):33–45
Körner C (2003) Slow in, rapid out – carbon flux studies and Kyoto targets. Science 300:1242–1243
Körner C, Asshoff R, Bignucolo O, Hättenschwiler S, Keel SG, Peláez-Riedl S, Pepin S, Siegwolf RTW, Zotz G (2005) Carbon flux and growth in mature deciduous forest trees exposed to elevated CO2. Science 309:1360–1363
Kump LR (2011) The last great global warming. Sci Am 7:57–61
Kurz WA, Dymond CC, Stinson G, Rampley GJ, Neilson ET, Carroll AL, Ebata T, Safranyik L (2008) Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change. Nature 452:987–990
Kurz W, Dymond C, White T, Stinson G, Shaw C, Rampley G, Smyth C, Simpson B, Neilson E, Trofymow J, Metsaranta J, Apps M (2009) CBM-CFS3: a model of carbon-dynamics in forestry and land-use change implementing IPCC standards. Ecol Model 220(4):480–504
Laganière J, Angers DA, Paré D (2010) Carbon accumulation in agricultural soils after afforestation: a meta-analysis. Glob Change Biol 16(1):439–453
Le Quéré C, Raupach MR, Canadell JG, Marland G, Bopp L, Ciais P, Conway TJ, Doney SC, Feely RA, Foster P, Friedlingstein P, Gurney K, Houghton RA, House JI, Huntingford C, Levy PE, Lomas MR, Majkut J, Metzl N, Ometto JP, Peters GP, Prentice IC, Randerson JT, Running SW, Sarmiento JL, Schuster U, Sitch S, Takahashi T, Viovy N, van der Werf GR, Woodward FI (2009) Trends in the sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Nat Geosci 2:831–836
Lindner M, Karjalainen T (2007) Carbon inventory methods and carbon mitigation potentials of forests in Europe: a short review of recent progress. Eur J For Res 126:149–156
Lindner M, Maroschek M, Netherer S, Kremer A, Barbati A, Garcia-Gonzalo J, Seidl R, Delzon S, Corona P, Kolström M, Lexer MJ, Marchetti M (2010) Climate change impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest ecosystems. For Ecol Manage 259(4):698–709
Lonsdale D, Gibbs J (2002) Effects of climate change on fungal diseases of trees, Bulletin, vol 125, chap 7. Forestry Commission Publications, Stockport
Lüthi D, Le Floch M, Bereiter B, Blunier T, Barnola JM, Siegenthaler U, Raynaud D, Jouzel J, Fischer H, Kawamura K, Stocker TF (2008) High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000–800,000 years before present. Nature 453:379–382
Luyssaert S, Schulze ED, Börner A, Knohl A, Hessenmöller D, Law BE, Ciais P, Grace J (2008) Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks. Nature 455:214–215
Luyssaert S, Ciais P, Piao SL, Schulze ED, Jung M, Zaehle S, Schelhaas MJ, Reichstein M, Churkina G, Papale D, Abril G, Beer C, Grace J, Loustau D, Matteucci G, Magnani F, Nabuurs GJ, Verbeeck H, Sulkava M, Van Der Werf GR, Janssens IA, Members of the CARBOEUROPE-IP SYNTHESIS TEAM (2010) The European carbon balance. Part 3: forests. Glob Change Biol 16(5):1429–1450
Malmsheimer R, Bowyer J, Fried J, Gee E, Izlar R, Miner R, Munn I, Oneil E, Stewart W (2011) Managing forests because carbon matters: integrating energy, products, and land management policy. J For (Suppl) 109(75):S7–S51
Marañón Jiménez S (2011) Efecto del manejo de la madera quemada después de un incendio sobre el ciclo del carbono y nutrientes en un ecosistema de montaña mediterránea. PhD thesis, Universidad de Granada
Mather A, Needle C (1998) The forest transition: a theoretical basis. Area 30(2):117–124
Matyas C (1996) Climatic adaptation of trees: rediscovering provenance tests. Euphytica 92:45–54
Mayer H (1976) Gebirgswaldbau – Schutzwaldpflege. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart
Mayer H (1984) Waldbau auf soziologisch-ökologischer Grundlage. G. Fischer, Stuttgart
MCPFE (2003) Ministerial conference on the protection of forests in Europe. Improved pan-European indicators for sustainable forest management as adopted by the MCPFE expert level meeting, 7–8 Oct 2002, Vienna. http://www.foresteurope.org/documentos/improved_indicators.pdf
Meinshausen M, Meinshausen N, Hare W, Raper SCB, Frieler K, Knutti R, Frame DJ, Allen MR (2009) Greenhouse-gas emission targets for limiting global warming to 2°C. Nature 458. doi:10.1038/nature0801
Melillo J, Steudler P, Aber J, Newkirk K, Lux H, Bowles F, Catricala C, Magill A, Ahrens T, Morrisseau S (2002) Soil warming and carbon-cycle. Feedbacks to the climate system. Science 298:2173–2176
Muhr J, Borken W (2009) Delayed recovery of soil respiration after wetting of dry soil further reduces C losses from a Norway spruce forest soil. J Geophy Res 114(G04):023
Nabuurs G, Hengeveld G, van der Werf D, Heidema A (2010) European forest carbon balance assessed with inventory based methods – an introduction to a special section. For Ecol Manage 260(3):239–240
Niinistö SM, Silvola J, Kellomäki S (2004) Soil CO2 efflux in a boreal pine forest under atmospheric CO2 enrichment and air warming. Glob Change Biol 10:1363–1376
Norby R, Zak D (2011) Ecological lessons from free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 42:181–203
O’Neill GA, Hamann A, Wang T (2008) Accounting for population variation improves estimates of the impact of climate change on species’ growth and distribution. J Appl Ecol 45:1040–1049
Oliver CD, Larsen BC (1990) Forest stand dynamics. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York
Pan Y, Birdsey RA, Fang J, Houghton R, Kauppi PE, Kurz WA, Phillips OL, Shvidenko A, Lewis SL, Canadell JG, Ciais P, Jackson RB, Pacala S, McGuire AD, Piao S, Rautiainen A, Sitch S, Hayes D (2011) A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. Science 333:988–993
Peters GP, Marland G, Le Quéré C, Boden T, Canadell JG, Raupach MR (2011) Rapid growth in CO2 emissions after the 2008–2009 global financial crisis. Nat Clim Change 2:2–4
Petit R, Hu F, Dick C (2008) Forests of the past: a window to future changes. Science 320:1450–1452
Pongratz J, Reick CH, Raddatz T, Caldeira K, Claussen M (2011) Past land use decisions have increased mitigation potential of reforestation. Geophys Res Lett 38:L15,701
Prietzel J, Bachmann S (2012) Changes in soil organic C and N stocks after forest transformation from Norway spruce and Scots pine into Douglas fir, Douglas fir/spruce, or European beech stands at different sites in Southern Germany. For Ecol Manage 269:134–148
Puettmann KJ, Coates KD, Messier C (2009) A critique of silviculture – managing for complexity. Island Press, Washington, D.C
Pyšek P, Krvánek M, Jarosîk V (2009) Planting intensity, residence time, and species traits determine invasion success of alien woody species. Ecology 90:2734–2744
Rahmstorf S, Coumou D (2011) Increase of extreme events in a warming world. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(44):17,905–17,909
Rehfeldt G, Ying C, Spittlehouse D, Hamilton D (1999) Genetic responses to climate in Pinus contorta: niche breadth, climate change, and reforestation. Ecol Monogr 69:375–407
Reick CH, Raddatz T, Pongratz J, Claussen M (2010) Contribution of anthropogenic land cover change emissions to pre-industrial atmospheric CO2. Tellus B 62(5):329–336
Reif A, Aas G, Essl F (2011) Braucht der Wald in Zeiten der Klimaveränderung neue, nicht heimische Baumarten? – do forests need new, non-native species in times of climate change? Natur und Landschaft 86(6):256–260
Rigling A, Brang P, Bugmann H, Kräuchi N, Wohlgemuth T, Zimmermann N (2008) Klimawandel als Prüfstein für die Waldbewirtschaftung. Schweiz Z For 159:316–325
Rodeghiero M, Heinemeyer A, Schrumpf M, Bellamy P (2009) Determination of soil carbon stocks and changes, chap 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/New York, pp 49–74
Russ W (2011) Mehr Wald in Österreich. BFW-Praxisinformation 24:3–5
Savolainen O, Pyhäjärvi T, Knürr T (2007) Gene flow and local adaptation in trees. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 38:595–619
Schadauer K (1996) Growth trends in Austria. In: Spiecker H, Mielikäinen K, Köhl M, Skovsgaard J (eds) Growth trends in European forests. Springer, Berlin, pp 275–289
Schils R, Kuikman P, Liski J, van Oijen M, Smith P, Webb J, Alm J, Somogyi Z, van den Akker J, Billett M, Emmett B, Evans C, Lindner M, Palosuo T, Bellamy P, Alm J, Jandl R, Hiederer R (2008) Review of existing information on the interrelations between soil and climate change. Alterra, Wageningen. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/pdf/climsoil_report_dec_2008.pdf
Schindlbacher A, Zechmeister-Boltenstern S, Jandl R (2009) Carbon losses due to soil warming: do autotrophic and heterotrophic soil respiration respond equally? Glob Change Biol 15:901–913
Schindlbacher A, Wunderlich S, Borken W, Kitzler B, Zechmeister-Boltenstern S, Jandl R (2012) Soil respiration under climate change: prolonged summer drought offsets soil warming effects. Glob Change Biol 18(7):2270–2279
Schmidt M, Hanewinkel M, Kändler G, Kublin E, Kohnle U (2010) An inventory-based approach for modeling single-tree storm damage – experiences with the winter storm of 1999 in southwestern Germany. Can J For Res 40:1636–1652
Schmidt MWI, Torn MS, Abiven S, Dittmar T, Guggenberger G, Janssens IA, Kleber M, Kögel-Knabner I, Lehmann J, Manning DAC, Nannipieri P, Rasse DP, Weiner S, Trumbore SE (2011) Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478:49–56
Schulze E, Schulze I (2010) Sustainable foresting: easier said than done. Science 327:957
Seastedt T (2009) Traits of plant invaders. Nature 459:783–784
Seidl R, Rammer W, Lexer MJ (2011a) Adaptation options to reduce climate change vulnerability of sustainable forest management in the Austrian Alps. Can J For Res 41(4):694–706
Seidl R, Schelhaas MJ, Lexer MJ (2011b) Unraveling the drivers of intensifying forest disturbance regimes in Europe. Glob Change Biol 17(9):2842–2852
Seppälä R, Buck A, Katila P (eds) (2009) Adaptation of forests and people to climate change. a global assessment report, IUFRO World Series, vol 22. IUFRO, Helsinki
Shvidenko A, Barber CV, Persson R (2007) Forest and woodland systems, chap 21. Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp 585–621
Smith WB, Miles PD, Perry CH, Pugh SA (2009) Forest resources of the United States, 2007. General technical report WO-78. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington Office
Smith SM, Lowe JA, Bowerman NHA, Gohar LK, Huntingford C, Allen MR (2012) Equivalence of greenhouse-gas emissions for peak temperature limits. Nat Climate Change 2:535–538
Sutton MA, Oenema O, Erisman JW, Leip A, van Grinsven H, Winiwarter W (2011) Too much of a good thing. Nature 472:159–161
Thuiller W, Lavorel S, Araújo MB, Sykes MT, Prentice IC (2005) Climate change threats to plant diversity in Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102(23):8245–8250
Tollefson J (2012) Brazil set to cut forest protection. Nature 485:19
Tomiczek C, Hoyer-Tomiczek U (2007) Der Asiatische Laubholzbockkäfer (Anoplophora glabripennis) und der Citrusbockkäfer (Anoplophora chinensis) in Europa – ein Situationsbericht. Forstschutz Aktuell 38:2–5
Tomppo E, Gschwantner T, Lawrence M, McRoberts RE (eds) (2010) National forest inventories – pathways for common reporting. Springer, Heidelberg
Ulbrich U, Leckebusch GC, Pinto JG (2009) Extra-tropical cyclones in the present and future climate: a review. Theor Appl Clim 96:117–131
Van Miegroet H, Olsson M (2011) Ecosystem disturbance and soil organic carbon – a review, chap 5. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, UK, pp 85–117
van Oijen M, Jandl R (2004) Nitrogen fluxes in two Norway spruce stands in Austria: an analysis by means of process-based modelling. Aust J For Res 121:167–182
Vesterdal L, Leifeld J, Poeplau C, Don A, van Wesemael B (2011) Land-use change effects on soil carbon stocks in temperate regions – development of carbon response functions, chap 3. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, UK, pp 33–48
Vuichard N, Ciais P, Belelli L, Smith P, Valentini R (2008) Carbon sequestration due to the abandonment of agriculture in the former USSR since 1990. Glob Biogeochem Cycle 22:GB4018
Wang T, Hamann A, Yanchuk Y, O’Neill G, Aiken S (2006) Use of response functions in selecting lodgepole pine populations for future climates. Glob Change Biol 12:2404–2416
Wang G, Innes J, Lei J, Dai S, Wu S (2007) China’s forestry reforms. Science 318:1556–1557
Weiskittel AR, Hann DW, Kershaw JA Jr, Vanclay JK (2011) Forest growth and yield modeling. Wiley, Chichester
Wermelinger B (2004) Ecology and management of the spruce bark beetle Ips typographus – a review of recent research. For Ecol Manage 202:67–82
Zhou G, Liu S, Li Z, Zhang D, Tang X, Zhou C, Yan J, Mo J (2006) Old-growth forests can accumulate carbon in soils. Science 314:1417
Zianis D, Mukkonen P, Mäkipää R, Mencuccini M (2005) Biomass and stem volume equations for tree species in Europe. Silva Fenn Monogr 4:63
Zimmermann NE, Yoccoz NG, Edwards TC Jr, Meier ES, Thuiller W, Guisan A, Schmatz DR, Pearman PB (2009) Climatic extremes improve predictions of spatial patterns of tree species. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:19,723–19,728
Acknowledgements
This paper is an output of the project, Management strategies to adapt Alpine Space forests to climate change risks (MANFRED), as part of the EU Interreg Alpine Space Programme. The data for the climate envelope of Norway spruce are derived from the Austrian National Forest Inventory and were evaluated by Nik Zimmermann, WSL, Switzerland.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jandl, R., Schüler, S., Schindlbacher, A., Tomiczek, C. (2013). Forests, Carbon Pool, and Timber Production. In: Lal, R., Lorenz, K., Hüttl, R., Schneider, B., von Braun, J. (eds) Ecosystem Services and Carbon Sequestration in the Biosphere. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6455-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6455-2_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-6454-5
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-6455-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)