Abstract
Provision of English for ethnic minority pupils in China has become more common since the turn of the century. This is primarily due to a series of policy documents issued in 2001 by the central education authorities to promote English language education in the country. Recent literature on English provision for minority groups paints a largely gloomy picture of the new phenomenon. There appears to be a consensus that minority students are now facing the daunting task of learning L3, usually English, in addition to the challenge of learning L2, Mandarin Chinese. This chapter focuses on the challenges faced by ethnic minorities in China in learning English. Given the usually unfavourable conditions minority groups are in with regard to geography, economy and social status, minority students seem to experience various cognitive and affective problems and thus are inevitably further marginalized. In some recent studies, however, researchers have found that instead of being further disadvantaged many minority students see the new challenge of learning L3 as an opportunity for empowerment. The author of this chapter provides a holistic and balanced review of this new phenomenon and makes some suggestions for further research.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Some groups, such as the Yao nationality in Guangxi and the Ewenki in Inner Mongolia, speak three languages often on a daily basis: their own ethnic minority language (L1), the dominant minority language used in the region (L2), and Mandarin Chinese (3). When the pupils face the task of learning English, Duoyu Jiantong (multilingualism) and Duoyu Jiaoyu (multilingual education) have become the logical educational aim. In this chapter, however, for the sake of brevity, we use trilingualism and trilingual education to refer to the use, teaching, and learning of languages by all minority groups, including the minority language(s) they speak, Mandarin Chinese (L2), and a foreign language, usually English (L3).
- 2.
According to Teng (2000a, b), Chinese is used as the medium for teaching and Yi as a school subject (he calls this Model 2) in schools in Zone 1 which consists of metropolitan areas where Chinese is the dominant language for daily use. The capital city of the Prefecture, Xichang, and other major towns fall into this zone. In isolated, mountainous areas in Liangshan—Zone 3 where Yi is used for communication—Yi is often used as the teaching medium and Chinese a school subject (Model 1). In Zone 2 with mixed communities of Chinese and Yi language speakers, both Chinese and Yi are used in daily interactions, and schools adopt either Model 1 or Model 2.
- 3.
Minority students educated in schools where Han Chinese is the teaching medium are called Min Kao Han students. At present, the Min Kao Han system co-exists with the Min Kao Min system where minority students are educated in their mother tongue from primary school onwards, with Chinese only as a school subject. The two parallel systems are found in autonomous regions, such as Tibet and Xinjiang.
- 4.
Preferential policies can be categorised into two major types for the purpose of this chapter: those for the students of ethnic minorities and those for the students defined as special and honored citizens. According to Li (2010), the “special and honoured citizen” group include “three good” students honored at the provincial or city level, children of cadres in poor areas, children of revolutionary martyrs, and children of families in which the mother in child-bearing age gave birth to two females and then had her oviduct legated (the last category may sound most bizarre to English readers, but not to a Chinese audience. It is apparently a measure to enhance the family planning policy in the countryside where families are allowed to have two children. Since most families long for a son, despite the strict policy, some families don’t stop reproducing if they get two daughters. Hence, central or local governments have taken other measures such as this to enhance their family planning policies). The policies of both types have been controversial, but this chapter focuses only on those for minority students.
- 5.
Threshold theory developed by Cummins (1976) refers essentially to bilingual children’s age-appropriate level in L1 and/or L2 to determine whether bilingualism has a detrimental or positive effect on the children.
- 6.
Recently, a multi-case study project to investigate trilingualism and trilingual education has been carried out in nine minority regions in China since 2009 (Feng 2010). This project aims, first of all, to gain a holistic understanding of language education and language use in these minority regions. Interested readers can contact the author for further information about this project.
References
Adamson, B., & Feng, A. (2009). A comparison of trilingual education policies for ethnic minorities in China. Compare, 39, 321–333.
Bastid-Bruguiere, M. (2001). Educational diversity in China. China Perspectives, 36, 17–26.
Beckett, G. H., & MacPherson, S. (2005). Researching the impact of English on minority and indigenous languages in non-Western contexts. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 299–307.
Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy and cognition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Blachford, D. Y. R., & Jones, M. (2011). Trilingual education policy ideals and realities for the Naxi in Yunnan. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), English language across Greater China (pp. 228–259). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Cenoz, J. (2003). The additive effect of bilingualism on third language acquisition: A review. International Journal of Bilingualism, 7(1), 71–87.
Cenoz, J., & Jessner, U. (2000). English in Europe: The acquisition of a third language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cenoz, J., & Valencia, J. F. (1994). Additive trilingualism: Evidence from the Basque Country. Applied Linguistics, 15, 195–207.
Cheng, X. T. (2011). The ‘English Curriculum Standards’ in China: Rationales and issues. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), English language across Greater China (pp. 133–150). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Chinese Ministry of Education. (2001a). 教育部关于积极推进小学开设英语课程的指导意见 [Guiding ideas to promote English curriculum in primary schools by the Ministry of Education. No. 2]. Beijing: Ministry of Education.
Chinese Ministry of Education. (2001b). 全日制义务教育普通高级中学课程标准 (实验稿) [English curriculum standards for full-time nine-year compulsory education and senior high schools (trial version)]. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press.
Chinese Ministry of Education. (2001c). 关于加强高等学校本科教学工作提高教学质量的若干意见 [Guiding ideas for improving the quality of undergraduate teaching in higher education institutions]. Beijing: Ministry of Education.
Clyne, M., Hunt, C. R., & Isaakidis, T. (2004). Learning a community language as a third language. International Journal of Multilingualism, 1(1), 33–52.
Cobbey, H. (2007). Challenges and prospects of minority bilingual education in China—An analysis of four projects. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China (pp. 182–199). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J. (1976). The influence of bilingualism on cognitive growth: A synthesis of research findings and explanatory hypothesis. Working Paper on Bilingualism, 9, 1–43.
Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J. (1986). Empowering minority students: A framework for intervention. Harvard Educational Review, 56(1), 18–36.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Dai, Q. X., & Cheng, Y. Y. (2007). Typology of bilingualism and bilingual education in Chinese minority nationality regions. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China (pp. 75–93). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Dai, Q. X., & Dong, Y. (1997). 中国少数民族双语教育的历史沿革- 2 [History and development of bilingual education for minority groups in China-2]. 民族教育研究, 1, 50–61.
Feng, A. W. (2005). Bilingualism for the minority or for the majority? An evaluative analysis of parallel conceptions in China. International Journal of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, 8, 529–551.
Feng, A. W. (Ed.). (2007a). Bilingual education in China: Practices, policies, concepts. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Feng, A. W. (2007b). Creating space for bilingual education in China. In X. W. Feng, X. N. Hu, & J. Liang (Eds.), Cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication—Theory and application in language teaching and research (pp. 21–51). Hong Kong: World Chinese Publishing Company.
Feng, A. W. (2010, October). Reconceptualising trilingualism: Insights from the Trilingualism-in-China Project. Keynote speech given at the Languages of Education: The Chinese Context Conference, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong.
Feng, A. W. (Ed.). (2011). English language Education across Greater China. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Feng, A. W., & Sunuodula, M. (2009). Analysing minority language education policy process in China in its entirety. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 12, 685–704.
Guan, X. Q. (1995). 中国少数民族双语教育实验调查与思考 [Survey and thoughts on experimental bilingual education for minority groups]. 民族教育研究, 4, 15–20.
Hansen, M. H. (1999). Lessons in being Chinese: Minority education and ethnic identity in Southwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Hoffmann, C., & Ytsam, J. (Eds.). (2004). Trilingualism in family, school and community. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hu, D. Y. (2007a). 云南少数民族三语教育 [Trilingual education for ethnic minority groups in Yunnan]. Yunnan, China: Yunnan University Press.
Hu, G. W. (2007b). The juggernaut of Chinese-English bilingual education. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China (pp. 94–126). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hu, G. W. (2008). The misleading academic discourse on Chinese–English bilingual education in China. Review of Educational Research, 78, 195–231.
Huang, M. (2003). 我区中学英语教师队伍现状分析 [An analysis of our region’s existing English teaching force]. 新疆教育学院学报, 19(4), 37–39.
Huang, B. L. (2007). Teachers’ perceptions of Chinese-English bilingual education in Guangxi. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China (pp. 219–239). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Huang, B. L. (2011). Economic development and the growing importance of the English language in Guangxi. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), English language across Greater China (pp. 212–227). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Jiang, Q. X., Liu, Q. G., Quan, X. H., & Ma, C. Q. (2007). EFL education in ethnic minority areas in Northwest China: An investigation in Gansu Province. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), Bilingualism and bilingual education in China (pp. 240–257). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Kenner, C. (2004). Becoming biliterate: Young children learning different writing systems. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.
Li, Y. L. (2003). 少数民族学生英语学习的特殊性研究 [An analysis of the special characteristics of minority students in learning English]. 西南民族大学学报, 24, 334–336.
Li, D. (2005, April 20). 改进教育环境,提高少数民族英语教育水平 [Improve educational environment and elevate the level of English language education of ethnic minorities]. 新疆日报.
Li, D. M. (2010). 关于高考优惠政策问题思考 [Some thoughts about the issues concerning ‘preferential policies’ for college entrance examination. 教育革新, 11, 3–4.
Lin, J. (1997). Policies and practices of bilingual education for the minorities in China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 18, 193–205.
Ma, Z. Y. (2005). 甘肃少数民族地区小学英语教学现状调查 [An investigation of the status of English provision in primary schools in minority regions in Gansu]. 基础教育外语教学研究, 55(9), 24–26.
Ma, Q., & Xiao, L. Z. (2002). 文化中断与少数民族教育 [Cultural suspense and minority education]. 陕西师范大学学报, 31(1), 119–124.
National People’s Congress (NPC) of the People’s Republic of China. (1982). Constitution of the People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/Constitution/node_2825.htm
Olan, M. (2007). 新疆少数民族大学生英语学习状况研究 [An investigation of the status quo of Xinjiang college minority students learning English]. 新疆大学学报, 35(2), 156–160.
Qian, M. H. (2002). 多元文化背景下的教育剬平问题 [Issues of educational equality under multicultural situations]. 西北民族学院学报, 6, 99–103.
Shi, J. (2006). 四川凉山州双语教学的历史现状及发展措施 [Past, now and future of bilingual education in Liangshan Prefecture in Sichuan]. 民族教育研究, 17(5), 102–110.
Sunuodula, M., & Feng, A. W. (2011). Learning a third language by Uyghur students in Xinjiang: A blessing in disguise? In A. W. Feng (Ed.), English language in education and societies across Greater China (pp. 260–283). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Teng, X. (2000a). 凉山彝族社区学校实施彝汉双语教育的必要性 [Necessity of conducting Yi-Han bilingual education in community schools in Liangshan]. 民族教育研究, 1, 5–25.
Teng, X. (2000b). 影响与制约凉山彝族社区学校彝汉两类模式双语教育的因素与条件 [Factors and conditions to influence or restrain the two models of Yi-Han bilingual education in schools in Liangshan]. 民族教育研究, 2, 45–52.
Tuedi, D. (2008). 新疆少数民族学生英语教学分析 [An analysis of English teaching and learning for minority students in Xinjiang]. 科技信息, 14, 552–573.
Wu, X. Q. (2000). 新疆少数民族学生“零起点”大学英语教学探索与实践 [Exploration and practice in English provision for Xinjiang minority students starting ‘from scratch’]. 外语界, 77(1), 41–43.
Wu, Y. M. (2002). 云南省少数民族大学生剬共英语学习困难因素浅析 [An analysis of the barriers to learning College English encountered by minority students in Yunnan]. 云南财经学院学报, 18(6), 116–120.
Xiao, X. (2003). 西昌市民族中学彝—英双语教育调查研究 [An investigation of Yi-English bilingual teaching at the Xichang School for Nationalities]. 民族教育研究, 14(2), 58–65.
Xu, J. (2000). 壮族学生英语学习的障碍及对策 [Obstacles of Zhuang students learning English and their solutions]. 民族教育研究, 2, 72–75.
Yang, L. P. (2003). 全球信息共享与发展壮英双语教育的构想 [Thoughts on sharing global information and developing Zhuang and English bilingual education]. 民族教育研究, 14(2), 66–70.
Yang, J. (2005). English as a third language among China’s ethnic minorities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 8, 552–67.
Yang, X. J. (2006). 少数民族英语教育的问题与对策 [Difficulties in English education for minority groups and measures to handle them]. 贵州民族研究, 26(3), 133–137.
Yu, J. (1997). 非智力因素与少数民族大学生的英语学习 [Non-intelligence factors in minority students’ learning English]. 民族教育研究, 3, 30–31.
Zhang, Z. A. (1998). 朝、汉双语人与英语教育 [Korean-Chinese bilinguals and English education]. 延边大学学报, 1, 152–155.
Zhang, Z. D. (2003). 为西部发展制定特殊外语政策 [Formulating special foreign language policies for the development of western regions]. 基础教育外语教学研究, 11, 22–24.
Zhang, Z. A. (2008). 中国朝鲜族英语教育研究综述 [A comprehensive review of English language provision for Koreans in China]. 延边大学学报, 41(6), 71–77.
Zhang, Q., Xue, X. D., & Wu, J. (2006). 壮族地区义务教育阶段实施双语教学存在的问题及对策 [Problems and solutions in implementing bilingual education during compulsory education in Zhuang regions]. 怀化学院学报, 25, 181–183.
Zhou, M. L. (2000). Language policy and illiteracy in ethnic minority communities in China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 21, 129–148.
Zhou, M. L. (2001). The politics of bilingual education and educational levels in ethnic minority communities in China. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 4, 125–149.
Zhou, M. L. (2003). Multilingualism in China: The politics of writing reforms for minority languages, 1949–2002. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Zhou, M. L. (Ed.). (2004). Language policy in the People’s Republic of China: Theory and practice since 1949. Boston: Kluwer.
Zhu, L. (2003). 积极开展双语教育, 深化高等院校教育改革 [Developing bilingual education, reforming teaching in higher education]. 辽宁教育研究, 3, 57–58.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Feng, A. (2012). English Teaching and Learning in Ethnic Minority Regions in China: Challenges and Opportunities. In: Ruan, J., Leung, C. (eds) Perspectives on Teaching and Learning English Literacy in China. Multilingual Education, vol 3. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4994-8_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4994-8_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-4993-1
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-4994-8
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawEducation (R0)