Abstract
The Tianshan, Junggar and Altay orogenic belts in northwest China (Xinjiang) are part of the huge Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), which extends from the Uralides in the west to the Pacific Ocean margin of eastern Asia. The CAOB is a complex collage of fragments of ancient microcontinents and subduction-related island arc terranes, fragments of oceanic crust volcanic islands and plateaux and successions formed at passive continental margins. The amalgamation of these terranes occurred at various times from the Neoproterozoic to the Mesozoic and was accompanied by several episodes of magmatism. The CAOB is endowed with a large variety and number of mineral deposits, including: epithermal, porphyry and skarn systems, volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS), lode style Au deposits, orthomagmatic Ni-Cu-PGE, rare metals in pegmatites and sandstone-hosted U deposits. There is abundant literature on various aspects of the geodynamic evolution of the Tianshan, Altay and Junggra belts and selected mineral deposits, both in Chinese and English. A review of the Tuwu, Baogutu porphyry deposits and those of the western Tianshan is provided. Epithermal precious metal deposits of high-sulphidation and low-sulphidation type are numerous in NW China and examples presented are Kuoerzhenkuola, Jinxi-Yelmand, Axi, Kuruer, Shuanffengshan, Jinshangou, Shiyingtan and Mazhaungshan. Similarly, precious metal lodes are abundant in the Tianshan, Junggar and Altay orogenic belts. Typically these lode deposits, commonly labeled as orogenic, occur within high strain zones in brittle (lower greenschist facies), brittle-ductile structures (mid-upper greenschist facies) to ductile (amphibolite facies). Many of the orogenic deposits have a spatial relationship to igneous rocks, while for others there is no clear connection with igneous activity. Therefore, these mineral systems are referred to as Au lodes, avoiding the orogenic or intrusion-related qualifiers.
In the southern Altay fold belt, Au lodes are distributed along second order faults within 5–10 km of the crustal scale Irtyish fault zone. Similarly, in the West Junggar fold belt, more than 300 lode deposits and occurrences are distributed along the Dalabute fault zone. In the East Junggar, lode deposits follow the Karamay fault for about 400 km. In the Tianshan, lode Au deposits abound, and for many the spatial links with granitic intrusions are well displayed, as is the case for the Kanggurtag deposit.
Skarn deposits are present in both the East Tianshan and Altay orogenic belts. In the East Tianshan the skarn deposits are Fe-Cu and Cu-Ag-Pb-Zn types. Iron-rich skarns in the East Tianshan include: Yamansu, Weiquan, Bailingshan, Heijianshan, Chilongfeng, Hongyuntan, Aqishan, Heilogfeng, Shuangfengshan and Shaquanzi. In the Altay belt, Mengku and Qiaoxiahala Fe deposits are economically important, as well as somewhat controversial in their origin. The Abagong Fe-P deposit also in the Altay, still being mined at the time of writing, is considered as a Kiruna-type ore system.
Volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) ore systems are present in both the Tianshan and Altay orogenic belts. They include the Qiaorequanzi Cu-Zn (in the Tianshan), Keketele Pb-Zn, Ashele Cu-Zn, Koktal Pb-Zn, Abagong Cu-Pb-Zn and Tiemuert Pb-Zn-Cu in the Altay orogen. For the latter, it has also been suggested that the deposit is not a VMS, but a base metal orogenic system. The Altay VMS deposits were formed in Devonian, fault-bound volcano-sedimentary basins, namely: Maize, Kelang and Qongut (or Chonghuer), containing mafic-felsic (bimodal) volcanic successions, possibly related to continental rifting. These Devonian volcano-sedimentary basins are strongly deformed and folded and their bimodal sequences metamorphosed from greenschist to upper amphibolite and granulite facies.
Ni-Cu sulphides in zoned and layered intrusions are present in the East Tianshan, Altay and in the West Junggar. Podiform chromite in ophiolitic rocks occurs in the West Junggar. On the southern margin of the Altay orogen the Kalatongke belt of mafic-ultramafic intrusions is distributed along the Irtysh fault zone. In the eastern Tianshan region there are two major belts of mafic-ultramafic rocks: the Huangshan-Jing’eruquan and Baishiquan belts, whereas in the western Tianshan is the Qingbulake belt. The Altay and Tianshan magmatic Ni-Cu deposits are genetically associated with and hosted in funnel-shaped, differentiated layered and/or zoned mafic-ultramafic intrusions. Several of these intrusions were originally emplaced in intracontinental rifts and are spatially and temporally associated with flood basalts and A-type granitic rocks. The Altay and Tianshan mafic-ultramafic intrusions have features that are similar to Alaskan-type complexes.
Sandstone-hosted roll-front type uranium deposits in Xinjiang include Wuyer, Wuyisan and Wuyiyi, located near the Kazakhstan border in the Yili basin and a fourth, called Shihongtan, in the Tuha Basin, about 200 km southeast of Urumqi. The U deposits in the Yili basin are considered to be an extension of a large U province in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Both the Yili and Tuha basins also host oil and gas reservoirs and coalfields.
A belt of about 1,000 pegmatite veins extends for more than 450 km, in the Central Altaishan terrane. Here more than 150 pegmatite-hosted rare metal deposits and occurrences are within high-grade metamorphic rocks and granitic intrusions. The Keketuohai No. 3 zoned pegmatite is one of the largest rare metal producers in China containing Be-, Li, Nb-Ta-, Cs-, Zr-, Hf-, U- and Bi-bearing minerals.
The Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belts or Tethysides extend from the Alpine orogen in Europe, to the Himalaya proper, Tibet and to southeast Asia. In this chapter, I discuss the Chinese portion of the Tethysides, more specifically Tibet, southwest China and the Kunlun region on the northern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. The Chinese Tethysides are also referred to as Himalayan-Tibetan orogen, an orogenic collage of magmatic arcs with a complex geodynamic evolution extending from Cambrian to Late Triassic. Recent published special issues have highlighted the number and variety of mineral deposits in the Tibetan orogen, which is after all not as well geological explored as other parts of China. Several porphyry copper and gold deposits in the eastern Qiantang terrane are located along the Jinshajiang and Red River fault systems. These ore deposits are associated with alkaline intrusions emplaced at 40–30 Ma. Porphyry copper and gold deposits associated with 18–10 Ma shoshonitic and potassic calc-alkaline (adakitic) intrusions are located along the Gangdese thrust in the Lhasa terrane.
The 270 km long and 15 km wide Cenozoic Mianning-Dechang (MD) belt in eastern Tibet and western Sichuan is located in on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton and is characterised by numerous syenite and carbonatite intrusions, spatially associated with the prominent strike-slip faults in the region (Red River, Ailaoshan, Xiaojiang faults) and within the prominent north-trending Panxi rift. The MD belt is endowed with a total of 3 Mt of REE ore in the Maoniuping and Dalucao deposits, plus a number of other occurrences. These deposits are related to magmatic activity (40–24 Ma, with a peak of activity at 35 Ma) in the region forms a nearly continuous potassic igneous province. The carbonatite–alkaline complexes in western Sichuan intrude Proterozoic crystalline basement and overlying Palaeozoic–Mesozoic volcano-sedimentary sequence, forming a narrow, north-trending REE mineralised corridor (Panxi rift). Finally, the sandstone- and limestone-hosted Jinding Zn-Pb deposit in western Yunnan, is considered to be the largest in China, with estimated resources of about 200 Mt (total Pb + Zn). The host rocks are of Cretaceous and Cenozoic age, making Jinding the youngest sedimentary-rock hosted Pb-Zn deposit in the world.
The Kunlu and Songpan-Ganzi terranes, separated by sutures from the Qiangtang (Tibetan plateau) in the south, South China Block to the east and Tarim-North China cratonic blocks to the north. The Ordovician to Triassic western Kunlun subduction-accretionary complex was developed between the southern margin of the Tarim block and the northern margin of the Tibetan Plataeu. The western Kunlun orogen, forming a 1,000 km long mountain range, consisting of magmatic arc-type terranes, ranging in age from Proterozoic to Lower Palaeozoic. The Kunlun orogen contains several types of ore systems, reflecting the complexity of its tectonic assemblages, from magmatic arc, to oceanic lithosphere, to back-arc settings. Porphyry Cu deposits, volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS), sedimentary Fe deposits and MVT Pb-Zn deposits and orogenic Au lodes are present. The Yunwuling porphyry Cu deposit occurs in a metallogenic belt along the Kunlun fault, whereas orogenic Au lodes are found in the eastern Kunlun and have an age of ca. 239 Ma. A newly discovered and unusual Co-Au deposit, called Tuolugou, within the Kunlun orogenic belt has resources estimated at greater than 20,000 t of Co and 4 t of Au.
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Pirajno, F. (2013). Tianshan, Junggar and Altay Orogens (NW China), the Alpine-Himalayan Fold Belts (Tethyan Orogens), Kunlun and Songpan-Ganzi Terranes. In: The Geology and Tectonic Settings of China's Mineral Deposits. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4444-8_6
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