Abstract
In this chapter, a new set of ethical and socio-political issues emerging with the development of second generation biometrics are analysed and discussed. Two main elements of this development focussed on are, first, the emergence of new biometric traits, in particular so-called soft biometrics and physiological biometrics, and second, the shift to embedded biometric systems, which includes an emphasis on distant sensing, both particularly with regard to security related applications. These technologies, it is argued, reify highly sensitive and essentially contestable social categorisations, thereby closing them off from inspection, debate and contestation. Moreover, the shift towards embedded systems and distant sensing biometrics, requiring no conscious cooperation from subjects, gives rise to some obvious concerns about covert data capture, transparency and consent. A discussion of ‘under the skin biometrics’, highlights how a whole new range of body data are thus brought within reach of data controllers, and especially when used in embedded and distant fashion, need to be assessed from social and ethical viewpoints urgently. Drawing the various types of developments discussed together, a highly normative assumption embedded in biometrics, is articulated: the assumption of availability, which concerns the presuppositon that the body is available for security measures in ways that ought not to be simply taken for granted.
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Notes
- 1.
For example, a Japanese software company has developed technologies named FieldAnalyst and Eye Flavour, which are automated market research systems that determine the gender and age of passers by, using facial pictures taken by cameras; they have been installed in several shopping malls in Japan. http://www.nec.co.nz/news/news.html
- 2.
Hence, we define soft biometric traits as characteristics that provide some information about the individual, but lack the distinctiveness and permanence to sufficiently differentiate any two individuals. The soft biometric traits can either be continuous (e.g., height and weight) or discrete (e.g., gender, eye color, ethnicity, etc.) (Jain et al. 2004, p. 732).
- 3.
European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies (2005) Opinion on Ethical Aspects of ICT Implants in the Human Body, March 16.
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- 6.
See for example the EC funded FP7 projects HUMABIO (http://www.humabio-eu.org/news.html) and ACTIBIO (http://www.actibio.eu:8080/actibio) Although within these research projects the terms ECG and EEG are used, these do not equal the measurements performed in medical context referred to by the same terms, which involve the use of officially gauged and certified equipment based on international standards.
- 7.
See for example the projects: (United States’ Department of Home land Security) Hostile Intent; Future Attribute Screening Technology – FAST, and (EU-FP7) Suspicious and Abnormal Behavior Monitoring – SAMURAI.
- 8.
For example, in “The National Biometrics Challenge”, we find this definition: “Non-cooperative user: An individual who is not aware that his/her biometric sample is being collected. Example: a passenger passing through a security line at an airport is unware that a camera is capturing his/her face image.” National Science and Technology Council Subcommittee on Biometrics (2007). The National Biometrics Challenge. Washington, DC: 1–19. p. 12.
- 9.
Ibidem.
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Acknowledgement
Funding of the research for this paper was partly provided by the European Research Council and the European Commission, both under the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013), DigIDeas Project/ERC Grant Agreement 201853, and HIDE project/EC Grant Agreement 217762
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van der Ploeg, I. (2012). Security in the Danger Zone: Normative Issues of Next Generation Biometrics. In: Mordini, E., Tzovaras, D. (eds) Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context. The International Library of Ethics, Law and Technology, vol 11. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3892-8_13
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