The Mechanism(s) of Neighbourhood Effects: Theory, Evidence, and Policy Implications

Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

Although there is now a large body of empirical research on neighbourhood effects, we know relatively little about the causal mechanisms responsible for relationships between neighbourhood attributes and individual outcomes. A list of 15 potential causal pathways which may lead to neighbourhood effects is given, grouped into four categories: social-interactive mechanisms, environmental mechanisms, geographical mechanisms, and institutional mechanisms. The ultimate goal of neighbourhood effects research is not only to identify which mechanisms are responsible for neighbourhood effects, but also to quantitatively ascertain their relative contributions to the outcome under investigation. A pharmacological metaphor of “dosage-response” is used to understand how the theoretical mechanisms could be causally linked to individual outcomes. This metaphor refers to questions regarding the composition and the administration of the neighbourhood dosage, and the neighbourhood dosage-response relationship. This chapter concludes that despite the ever growing literature on neighbourhood effects, there is far too little scholarship to make many claims about which causal links dominate for which outcomes for which people in which national contexts and any conclusions on the existence of such effects should be treated as provisional at best.

Keywords

Collective Efficacy Neighbourhood Effect Relative Deprivation Affluent Neighbour Parental Mediation 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Notes

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Roland Atkinson, Jason Booza, Derek Hyra, Jeff Morenoff, Peter Phibbs, Kami Pothukuchi, and Lyke Thompson for stimulating conversations and helpful citations related to the subject matter of this paper. The research assistance of Sarah Marolf, Rebecca Grace Stokan, Lisa Stack, and Lonnisha Thomas is gratefully acknowledged. This paper was written with the support of the MacArthur Foundation.

References

  1. Anderton, D. L., Anderson, A., Rossi, P. H., Oakes, J. M., Fraser, M. R., Weber, E. W., & Calabrese, E. J. (1994). Hazardous-waste facilities-environment equity issues in metropolitan areas. Evaluation Review, 18(2), 123–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Aneshensel, C. S., & Sucoff, C. A. (1996). The neighborhood context and adolescent mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37(2), 293–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Ash, M., & Fetter, T. R. (2004). Who lives on the wrong side of the environmental tracks? Evidence from the EPA’’s risk-screening environmental indicators model. Social Science Quarterly, 85(2), 441–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Atkinson, R., & Kintrea, K. (1998). Reconnecting excluded communities: Neighbourhood impacts of owner occupation. Edinburgh: Scottish Homes.Google Scholar
  5. Atkinson, R., & Kintrea, K. (2001). Area effects: What do they mean for British housing and regeneration policy? European Journal of Housing Policy, 2(2), 147–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Atkinson, R., & Kintrea, K. (2004). Opportunities and despair, It’s All in there: Practitioner experiences and explanations of area effects and life chances. Sociology, 38(3), 437–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Bayer, P., Ross, S. L., & Topa, G. (2004). Place of work and place of residence: Informal hiring networks and labor market outcomes (Working paper). New Haven: Economics Department, Yale University.Google Scholar
  8. Beekman, T., Lyons, F., & Scott, J. (2001). Improving the understanding of the influence of owner occupiers is mixed tenure neighborhoods, report 89. Edinburgh: ODS Limited for Scottish Homes.Google Scholar
  9. Bell, P., Greene, T., Fisher, J., & Baum, A. (1996). Environmental psychology (4th ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace College Publishers.Google Scholar
  10. Bernstein, J. A., Alexis, N., Barnes, C., Bernstein, I. L., Bernstein, J., Nel, A., Peden, D., Diaz-Sanchez, D., Tarlo, S. M., & Williams, P. B. (2004). Health effects of air pollution. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 114(5), 1116–1123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Bertrand, M., Luttmer, E. F. P., & Mullainathan, S. (2000). Network effects and welfare cultures. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(3), 1019–1055.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Blasius, J., & Friedrichs, J. (2004). Deviant norms in a poverty neighborhood. Paper presented at the Inside Poverty Areas Conference, University of Koln.Google Scholar
  13. Block, J., Scribner, R. A., & De Salvo, K. B. (2004). Fast food, race/ethnicity, and income: A geographic analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(3), 211–217.Google Scholar
  14. Blokland-Potters, T. (1998). Wat Stadsbewoners Bindt: Sociale relaties in een achterstandswijk. Kampen: Kok Agora.Google Scholar
  15. Bolster, A., Burgess, S., Johnston, R., Jones, K., Propper, C., & Sarker, R. (2004). Neighborhoods, households and income dynamics (CMPO Working Paper Series No. 04/106). Bristol: University of Bristol.Google Scholar
  16. Booth, A., & Crouter, A. (Eds.). (2001). Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents and families. London/Mahwah: N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers.Google Scholar
  17. Boyd, M. (2008). Jim crow Nostaligia: Reconstructing race in Bronzeville. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
  18. Bramley, G., Evans, M., & Noble, M. (2005). Mainstream services and neighbourhood deprivation. London: Neighbourhood Renewal Unit. Available at: www.neighbourhoods.gov.uk.Google Scholar
  19. Briggs, X. (1997a). Moving up versus moving out: Neighborhood effects in housing mobility programs. Housing Policy Debate, 8(1), 195–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Briggs, X. (Ed.). (1997b). Yonkers revisited: The early impacts of scattered-site public housing on families and neighborhoods. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.Google Scholar
  21. Briggs, X. (1998). Brown kids in white suburbs: Housing mobility and the many faces of social capital. Housing Policy Debate, 9(1), 177–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Brook, R. D. (2008). Cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Clinical Science, 115(6), 175–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Brunekreef, B., & Holgate, S. (2002). Air pollution and health. Lancet, 360(9341), 1233–1242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Buck, N. (2001). Identifying neighborhood effects on social exclusion. Urban Studies, 38(12), 2251–2275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Bullard, R. D. (1994). Dumping in Dixie: Race, class and environmental quality (2nd ed.). Boulder: West View Press.Google Scholar
  26. Case, A., & Katz, L. (1991). The company you keep: The effects of family and neighborhood on disadvantaged youth (NBER Working Paper 3705). Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar
  27. Ceballo, R., Dahl, T., Aretakis, M., & Ramirez, C. (2001). Inner-city children’s exposure to community violence: How much do parents know? Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(4), 927–940.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Chase-Lansdale, P., Gordon, R., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. (1997). Neighborhood and family influences on the intellectual and behavioral competence of pre-school and early school-age children. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty (Context and consequences for children, Vol. 1, pp. 9–118). New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
  29. Chay, K. Y., & Greenstone, M. (2003). The impact of air pollution on infant mortality: Evidence from geographic variation in pollution shocks induced by a recession. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(3), 1121–1167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Chen, H., Goldberg, M. S., & Villeneuve, P. J. (2008). A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases. Reviews on Environmental Health, 23(4), 243–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Clampet-Lundquist, S. (2004). HOPE VI relocation: Moving to new neighborhoods and building new ties. Housing Policy Debate, 15(3), 415–447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Clancy, L., Goodman, P., Sinclair, H., & Dockery, D. (2002). Effect of air pollution control in death rates in Dublin, Ireland. Lancet, 360(9341), 1210–1214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Clougherty, J. E., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2009). A framework for examining social stress and susceptibility to air pollution in respiratory health. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(9), 1351–1358.Google Scholar
  34. Cole, I., Gidley, G., Ritchie, C., Simpson, D., & Wishart, B. (1997). Creating communities of welfare housing? A study of housing association developments in Yorkshire/Humberside. Coventry: Chartered Institute of Housing.Google Scholar
  35. Condron, D., & Roscigno, V. (2003). Disparities within: Unequal spending and achievement in an urban school district. Sociology of Education, 76(1), 18–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Crane, J. (1991). The epidemic theory of ghettos and neighborhood effects on dropping out and teenage childbearing. The American Journal of Sociology, 96(5), 1226–1259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Currie, J., & Neidell, M. (2005). Air pollution and infant health: What can we learn from California’s recent experience? Quarterly Journal of Economics, VCXX(3), 1003–1030.Google Scholar
  38. Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1997). Assessing neighborhood effects using individual-level data. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty (Policy implications in studying neighborhoods, Vol. 2, pp. 120–131). New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
  39. Dawkins, C., Shen, Q., & Sanchez, T. (2005). Race, space, and unemployment duration. Journal of Urban Economics, 58(1), 91–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Dean, J., & Hastings, A. (2000). Challenging images: Housing estates, stigma and regeneration. Bristol: The Policy Press & Joseph Rountree Foundation.Google Scholar
  41. Dietz, R. (2002). The estimation of neighborhood effects in the social sciences. Social Science Research, 31(4), 539–575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Diez-Roux, A. V., Nieto, F. J., Caulfield, K., Tyroler, H. A., Watson, R. L., & Szklo, M. (1999). Neighborhood differences in diet: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study (ARIC). Journal of Epidemiological and Community Health, 53(1), 55–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Dubow, E. F., Edwards, S., & Ippolito, M. F. (1997). Life stressors, neighborhood disadvantages, and resources: A focus on inner city children’s adjustment. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26(1), 130–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Dujardin, C., & Goffette-Nagot, F. (2007). Neighborhood effects, public housing, and unemployment in France (Working paper 05-05). Paris: GATE.Google Scholar
  45. Duncan, C., & Jones, K. (1995). Individuals and their ecologies: Analyzing the geography of chronic illness within a multi-level modeling framework. Journal of Health and Place, 1(1), 27–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Duncan, G. J., Connell, J. P., & Klebanov, P. K. (1997). Conceptual and methodological issues in estimating causal effects of neighborhoods and family conditions on individual development. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty (Context and consequences for children, Vol. 1, pp. 219–250). New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
  47. Duyvendak, J., Kleinhans, R., & Veldboer, L. (2000). Integratie door differentiate: een onderzoek naar de effecten van gemengd bouwen. The Hague: Ministerie van VROM.Google Scholar
  48. Earls, F., McGuire, J., & Shay, S. (1994). Evaluating a community intervention to reduce the risk of child abuse: Methodological strategies in conducting neighborhood surveys. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18(5), 473–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Elder, G. H., Eccles, J. S., Ardelt, M., & Lord, S. (1995). Inner-city parents under economic pressure: Perspectives on the strategies of parenting. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(3), 771–784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Ellen, I. G., & Turner, M. A. (1997). Does neighborhood matter? Assessing recent evidence. Housing Policy Debate, 8(4), 833–866.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Ellen, I. G., & Turner, M. A. (2003). Do neighborhoods matter and why? In J. Goering & J. Feins (Eds.), Choosing a better life? Evaluating the moving to opportunity experiment (pp. 313–338). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.Google Scholar
  52. Ellen, I. G., Mijanovich, T., & Dillman, K. (2001). Neighborhood effects on health: Exploring the links and assessing the evidence. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23(3), 391–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Farwick, A. (2004). Spatial isolation, social networks, and the economic integration of migrants in poverty areas. Paper presented at the Inside Poverty Areas Conference, University of Koln.Google Scholar
  54. Fernandez, R., & Harris, D. (1992). Social isolation and the underclass. In A. V. Harrell & G. E. Peterson (Eds.), Drugs, crime, and, social isolation: Barriers to urban opportunity (pp. 257–293). Washington: The Urban Institute.Google Scholar
  55. Freeman, L. (2006). There goes the ‘hood. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
  56. Friedrichs, J. (1998). Do poor neighborhoods make their residents poorer? Context effects of poverty neighborhoods on their residents. In H. Andress (Ed.), Empirical poverty research in a comparative perspective (pp. 77–99). Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
  57. Friedrichs, J., Galster, G., & Musterd, S. (2003). Neighborhood effects on social opportunities: The European and American research and policy context. Housing Studies, 18(6), 797–806.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Gallagher, M. (2006). Examining the impact of food deserts on public health in Chicago. Chicago: Mari Gallagher Research and Consulting Group.Google Scholar
  59. Gallagher, M. (2007). Examining the impact of food deserts on public health in Detroit. Chicago: Mari Gallagher Research and Consulting Group.Google Scholar
  60. Galster, G. (2002). An economic efficiency analysis of deconcentrating poverty populations. Journal of Housing Economics, 11(4), 303–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Galster, G. (2003). Investigating behavioural impacts of poor neighbourhoods: Towards new data and analytic strategies. Housing Studies, 18(6), 893–914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Galster, G. (2005). Neighbourhood mix, social opportunities, and the policy challenges of an increasingly diverse Amsterdam. Amsterdam: Planning & International Development Studies, Department of Geography, University of Amsterdam. http://www.fmg.uva.nl/amidst/object.cfm/objectid=7C149E7C-EC9F-4C2E-91DB7485C0839425.Google Scholar
  63. Galster, G. (2007a). Neighbourhood social mix as a goal of housing policy: A theoretical analysis. European Journal of Housing Policy, 7(1), 19–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Galster, G. (2007b). Should policymakers strive for neighborhood social mix? An analysis of the western European evidence base. Housing Studies, 22(3), 523–546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Galster, G. (2008). Quantifying the effect of neighbourhood on individuals: Challenges, alternative approaches and promising directions. Journal of Applied Social Science Studies [Schmollers Jahrbuch/Zeitscrift fur Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften], 128(1), 7–48.Google Scholar
  66. Galster, G. C., & Santiago, A. M. (2006). What’s the ‘hood got to do with it? Parental perceptions about how neighbourhood mechanisms affect their children. Journal of Urban Affairs, 28(3), 201–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Galster, G., Andersson, R., Musterd, S., & Kauppinen, T. M. (2008). Does neighborhood income mix affect earnings of adults? New evidence from Sweden. Journal of Urban Economics, 63(3), 858–870.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Galster, G., Santiago, A., Cutsinger, J., & Grace-Stokan, R. (2009). Neighborhood poverty and the development of low-income, minority children: preliminary evidence from a natural experiment in Denver. Paper presented at APPAM meetings, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
  69. Galster, G., Andersson, R., & Musterd, S. (2010). Who is affected by neighbourhood income mix? Gender, age, family, employment and income differences. Urban Studies, 47(14), 2915–2944.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Ganz, M. L. (2000). The relationship between external threats and smoking in central Harlem. American Journal of Public Health, 90(3), 367–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Gephart, M. (1997). Neighborhoods and communities as contexts for development. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty (Context and consequences for Children, Vol. I, pp. 1–43). New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
  72. Geronimus, A. T. (1992). The weathering hypothesis and the health of African-American women and infants: Evidence and speculations. Ethnicity & Disease, 2(3), 207–221.Google Scholar
  73. Gibbons, S. (2002). Neighbourhood effects on educational achievement: Evidence from the census and national child development study. London: Centre for the Economics of Education, London School of Economics and Political Science.Google Scholar
  74. Gillborn, D., & Youdell, D. (2000). Rationing education: Policy, practice, reform and equity. Buckingham: Open University Press.Google Scholar
  75. Ginther, D., Haveman, R., & Wolfe, B. (2000). Neighbourhood attributes as determinants of children’s outcomes. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 603–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Gobillon, L., Selod, H., & Zenou, Y. (2007). The mechanisms of spatial mismatch. Urban Studies, 44(12), 2401–2427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Gobillon, L., Magnac, T., & Selod, H. (2010). The effect of location on finding a job in the Paris region. Journal of Applied Econometrics. DOI:10.1002/jae.Google Scholar
  78. Goering, J., & Feins, J. (Eds.). (2003). Choosing a better life? Evaluating the moving to opportunity experiment. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.Google Scholar
  79. Green, L., & Ottoson, J. M. (1999). Community and population health (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
  80. Greenberg, M. T., Lenqua, L. J., Coie, J. D., & Pinderhughes, E. E. (1999). Predicting developmental outcomes at school entry using multiple-risk model: Four American communities. Developmental Psychology, 35(2), 403–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Guerra, N., Huesmann, L., & Spindler, A. (2003). Community violence exposure, social cognition, and aggression among urban elementary school children. Child Development, 74(5), 1561–1576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Hagan, J., & Foster, H. (2001). Youth violence and the end of adolescence. American Sociological Review, 66(6), 874–899.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Hamilton, J. T. (1995). Testing for environmental racism: Prejudice, profits, political power? Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 14(1), 107–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. Hassing, C., Twickler, M., Brunekreef, B., Cassee, F., Doevendans, P., Kastelein, J., & Cramer, M. J. (2009). Particulate air pollution, coronary heart disease and individual risk assessment: A general overview. European Journal of Cardiovasic Prevention and Rehabilitation, 16(1), 10–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Hastings, A. (2007). Territorial justice and environmental services: UK. Environment and Planning C, 25(6), 896–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. Hastings, A. (2009a). Neighbourhood environmental services and neighbourhood ‘effects’: Exploring the role of urban services in intensifying neighbourhood problems. Housing Studies, 24(4), 503–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Hastings, A. (2009b). Poor neighbourhoods and poor services: Evidence on the ‘Rationing’ of environmental service provision to deprived neighbourhoods. Urban Studies, 46(13), 2907–2928.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Hastings, A., & Dean, J. (2003). Challenging images: Tackling stigma through estate regeneration. Policy and Politics, 31(2), 171–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Haurin, D., Dietz, R., & Weinberg, B. (2002). The impact of neighborhood homeownership rates: A review of the theoretical and empirical literature. Columbus: Department of Economics Working Paper, Ohio State University.Google Scholar
  90. Haveman, R., & Wolfe, B. (1994). Succeeding generations: On the effects of investments in children. New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
  91. Hirschfield, A., & Bowers, K. J. (1997). The effect of social cohesion on levels of recorded crime in disadvantaged areas. Urban Studies, 34(8), 1275–1295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. Holguin, F. (2008). Traffic, outdoor air pollution, and asthma. Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America, 28(3), 577–588.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Hyra, D. (2008). The new urban renewal. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  94. Ioannides, Y. M., & Loury, L. D. (2004). Job information networks, neighborhood effects, and inequality. Journal of Economic Literature, 42(4), 1056–1093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Jargowsky, P., & El Komi, M. (2009). Before or after the bell? School context and neighborhood effects on student achievement (Working Paper 28). Washington: National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research, Urban Institute.Google Scholar
  96. Jarrett, R. L. (1997). Bringing families back in: Neighborhoods’ effects on child development. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty (Policy implications in studying neighborhoods, Vol. 2, pp. 48–64). New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
  97. Jencks, C., & Mayer, S. (1990). The social consequences of growing up in a poor neighborhood. In L. E. Lynn & M. F. H. McGeary (Eds.), Inner-city poverty in the United State (pp. 111–186). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
  98. Joseph, M. (2006). Is mixed-income development an antidote to urban poverty? Housing Policy Debate, 17(2), 209–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Joseph, M., Chaskin, R., & Webber, H. (2006). The theoretical basis for addressing poverty through mixed-income development. Urban Affairs Review, 42(3), 369–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. Jupp, B. (1999). Living together: Community life on mixed-tenure estates. London: Demos.Google Scholar
  101. Kain, J. F. (1992). The spatial mismatch hypothesis: Three decades later. Housing Policy Debate, 3(2), 371–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Katz, L., Kling, J., & Liebman, J. (2001). A moving to opportunity in Boston: Early results of a randomized mobility experiment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(2), 607–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. Kauppinen, T. M. (2004). Neighbourhood effects in a European city: The educational careers of young people in Helsinki. Paper presented at European Network for Housing Research meetings, Cambridge, UK.Google Scholar
  104. Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. (2003). Neighborhoods and health. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. Kelling, G., & Wilson, J. Q. (1982). Broken windows: The police and neighbourhood safety. Atlantic Monthly, 249(1), 29–38.Google Scholar
  106. Klebanov, P. K., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1994). Does neighborhood and family poverty affect mothers’ parenting, mental health, and social support? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56(2), 441–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. Klebanov, P. K., Brooks-Gunn, J., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Gordon, R. (1997). Are neighborhood effects on young children mediated by features of the home environment? In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty (Context and consequences for children, Vol. 1, pp. 119–145). New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
  108. Kleinhans, R. (2004). Social implications of housing diversification in urban renewal: A review of recent literature. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 19(2), 367–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. Kleit, R. (2001a). The role of neighborhood social networks in scattered-site public housing residents’ search for jobs. Housing Policy Debate, 12(3), 541–573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. Kleit, R. (2001b). Neighborhood relations in scattered-site and clustered public housing. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23(3–4), 409–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. Kleit, R. (2002). Job search networks and strategies in scattered-site public housing. Housing Studies, 17(1), 83–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. Kleit, R. (2005). HOPE VI new communities: Neighborhood relationships in mixed-income housing. Environment and Planning A, 37(8), 1413–1441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. Kleit, R., & Carnegie, N. (2009). Integrated or isolated? The impact of public housing redevelopment on social network homophily. Washington: Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs, University of Washington [Unpublished paper].Google Scholar
  114. Kohen, D. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Leventhal, T., & Hertzman, C. (2002). Neighborhood income and physical and social disorder in Canada: Associations with young children’s competencies. Child Development, 73(6), 1844–1860.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2002). Teacher sorting and the plight of urban schools: A descriptive analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(1), 37–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  116. Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live. Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 309–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. Linares, L., Heeren, T., Bronfman, E., Zuckerman, B., Augustyn, M., & Tronick, E. (2001). A Mediational model for the impact of exposure to community violence on early child behavior problems. Child Development, 72(2), 639–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. Litt, J., Tran, N., & Burke, T. (2009). Examining urban brownfields through the public health ‘macroscope’. In H. P. Hynes & R. Lopez (Eds.), Urban health (pp. 217–236). Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.Google Scholar
  119. Lopez, R., & Hynes, P. (2006). Obesity, physical activity, and the urban environment: Public health research needs. Environmental Health, 5(1), 25–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. Lord, H., & Mahoney, J. (2007). Neighborhood crime and self-care: Risks for aggression and lower academic performance. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1321–1333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. Lupton, R. (2004). Schools in disadvantaged areas: Recognising context and raising quality (LSE STICERD Research Paper No. CASE 076). London: University of London – Institute of Education.Google Scholar
  122. Manski, C. F. (1995). Identification problems in the social sciences. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  123. Markowitz, F. E., Bellair, P. E., Liska, A. E., & Liu, J. (2001). Extending social disorganization theory: Modeling the relationships between cohesion, disorder, and fear. Criminology, 39(2), 293–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. Martin, G., & Watkinson, J. (2003). Rebalancing communities: Introducing mixed incomes into existing rented housing estates. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
  125. Martinez, J., & Richters, P. (1993). The NIMH community violence project: II. Children’s distress symptoms associated with violence exposure. Psychiatry, 56(1), 22–35.Google Scholar
  126. McConnell, R., Berhane, K., Gilliland, F., London, S., Islam, T., & Gauderman, W. (2002). Asthma in exercising children exposed to ozone: A cohort study. Lancet, 359(9304), 386–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  127. McConnochie, K., Russo, M., McBride, J., Szilagyi, P., Brooks, A., & Roghmann, K. (1999). Socioeconomic variation in asthma hospitalization: Excess utilization or greater need? Pediatrics, 103(6), 75–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. McCulloch, A. (2001). Ward-level deprivation and individual social and economic outcomes in the British household panel survey. Environment and Planning A, 33(4), 667–684.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. Mills, N. L., Donaldson, K., Hadoke, P. W., Boon, N. A., MacNee, W., Cassee, F. R., Sandstrom, T., Blomberg, A., & Newby, D. E. (2009). Adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution. National Clinical Practice Cardiovascular Medicine, 6(1), 36–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. Morenoff, J., Sampson, R., & Raudensbush, S. (2001). Neighborhood inequality, collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of homicide. Criminology, 39(3), 517–560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. Morland, K., Wing, S., Diez-Roux, A., & Poole, C. (2002). Neighborhood characteristics associated with the location of food stores and food service places. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 22(1), 23–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. Musterd, S. (2002). Response: Mixed housing policy: A European (Dutch) perspective. Housing Studies, 17(1), 139–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. Musterd, S., & Andersson, R. (2006). Employment, social mobility and neighborhood effects. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 30(1), 120–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  134. Musterd, S., Ostendorf, W., & De Vos, S. (2003). Neighbourhood effects and social mobility: A longitudinal analysis. Housing Studies, 18(6), 877–892.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  135. Needleman, H., & Gastsonis, B. (1991). Meta-analysis of 24 studies of learning disabilities due to lead poisoning. Journal of the American Medical Association, 265(5), 673–678.Google Scholar
  136. Neidell, M. (2004). Air pollution, health, and socio-economic status: The effect of outdoor air quality on childhood asthma. Journal of Health Economics, 23(6), 1209–1236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  137. Newman, K. (1999). No shame in my game: The working poor in the inner city. New York: Knopf & the Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
  138. Oberwittler, D. (2004). Neighborhood disadvantage and adolescent adjustment: Responses of adolescents to disorder and violent subcultures. Paper presented at the Inside Poverty Areas Conference, University of Cologne.Google Scholar
  139. Oberwittler, D. (2007). The effects of neighbourhood poverty on adolescent problem behaviours: A multi-level analysis differentiated by gender and ethnicity. Housing Studies, 22(6), 781–804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. Ostendorf, W., Musterd, S., & de Vos, S. (2001). Social mix and the neighborhood effect: Policy ambition and empirical support. Housing Studies, 16(3), 371–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  141. Pawson, H., Karryn, K., & MacIntosh, S. (2000). Assessing the impact of tenure diversification: The case of Niddrie, Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Scottish Homes.Google Scholar
  142. Perlin, S., Wong, D., & Sexton, K. (2001). Residential proximity to industrial sources of air pollution: Interrelationships among race, poverty, and age. Journal of the Environmental and Waste Management Association, 51(3), 406–421.Google Scholar
  143. Permentier, M., Bolt, G., & van Ham, M. (2007). Comparing residents’ and non-residents’ assessments of neighbourhood reputations. Paper presented at the American Association of Geographers meetings, San Francisco.Google Scholar
  144. Phibbs, P. (2009). The relationship between housing and improved health, education and employment outcomes: The view from Australia. Paper presented at the 50th annual ACSP conference, Crystal City.Google Scholar
  145. Pickett, K. E., & Pearl, M. (2001). Multilevel analyses of neighborhood, socioeconomic context and health outcomes: A critical review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55(1), 111–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. Pinkster, F. (2008). Living in concentrated poverty. PhD dissertation, Department of Geography, Planning, and International Development Studies, University of Amsterdam.Google Scholar
  147. Pocock, S. J., Smith, M., & Baghurst, P. (1994). Environmental lead and children’s intelligence: A systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. British Medical Journal, 309(6963), 1189–1197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  148. Popkin, S., Harris, L., & Cunningham, M. (2002). Families in transition: A qualitative analysis of the MTO experience. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.Google Scholar
  149. Powell, M., & Boyne, G. (2002). The spatial strategy of equality and the spatial division of welfare. Policy & Administration, 35(2), 181–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. Power, A. (1997). Estates on the edge: The social consequences of mass housing in northern Europe. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
  151. Rauch, V. A., Andrews, H. F., & Garfinkel, R. (2001). The contribution of maternal age to racial disparities in birthweight: A multilevel perspective. American Journal of Public Health, 91(11), 1815–1824.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. Ren, C., & Tong, S. (2008). Health effects of ambient air pollution – recent research development and contemporary methodological challenges. Environmental Health, 7(56).Google Scholar
  153. Reyes, J. (2005). The Impact of prenatal lead exposure on health (Working Papers). Department of Economics, Amherst College.Google Scholar
  154. Richters, P., & Martinez, J. E. (1993). The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry, 56(1), 7–21.Google Scholar
  155. Ritz, B., Yu, F., Fruin, S., Chapa, G., Shaw, G., & Harris, J. (2002). Ambient air pollution and risk of birth defects in Southern California. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155(1), 17–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  156. Rosenbaum, J. (1991). Black pioneers: Do moves to the suburbs increase economic opportunity for mothers and children? Housing Policy Debate, 2(4), 1179–1213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  157. Rosenbaum, J. (1995). Changing the geography of opportunity by expanding residential choice: Lessons from the Gautreaux program. Housing Policy Debate, 6(1), 231–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  158. Rosenbaum, J. E., Reynolds, L., & DeLuca, S. (2002). How do places matter? The geography of opportunity, self-efficacy, and a look inside the black box of residential mobility. Housing Studies, 17(1), 71–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  159. Rosenbaum, E., Harris, L., & Denton, N. (2003). New places, new faces: An analysis of neighborhoods and social ties among MTO movers in Chicago. In J. Goering & J. Feins (Eds.), Choosing a better life? Evaluating the moving to opportunity experiment (pp. 275–310). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.Google Scholar
  160. Ross, C. E., Mirowksy, J., & Pribesh, S. (2001). Powerlessness and the amplification of threat: Neighborhood disadvantage, disorder, and mistrust. American Sociological Review, 66(4), 443–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  161. Saha, R. (2009). A current appraisal of toxic wastes and race in the United States. In H. P. Hynes & R. Lopez (Eds.), Urban health (pp. 237–260). Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.Google Scholar
  162. Sampson, R. J. (1992). Family management and child development. In J. McCord (Ed.), Advances in criminological theory (Vol. 3, pp. 63–93). New Brunswick: Transaction Books.Google Scholar
  163. Sampson, R. J. (2001). How do communities undergird or undermine human development? Relevant contexts and social mechanisms. In A. Booth & A. Crouter (Eds.), Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents and families (pp. 3–30). London/Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers.Google Scholar
  164. Sampson, R. J., & Groves, W. B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social disorganization theory. The American Journal of Sociology, 94(4), 774–802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  165. Sampson, R., Raudenbush, S., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918–924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  166. Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J., & Earls, F. (1999). Beyond social capital: Spatial dynamics of collective efficacy for children. American Sociological Review, 64(5), 633–660.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  167. Sampson, R., Morenoff, J., & Gannon-Rowley, T. (2002). Assessing ‘neighborhood Effects’: Social processes and new directions in research. Annual Review of Sociology, 28, 443–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  168. Schaefer-McDaniel, N., Caughy, M. O., O’Campo, P., & Gearey, W. (2009). Examining details of neighborhood observations and the relationship to health: A literature review. Social Science & Medicine, 70(2), 277–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  169. Schell, L., & Denham, M. (2003). Environmental pollution in urban environments and human biology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 32(1), 111–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  170. Schill, M. (1997). Chicago’s new mixed-income communities strategy: The future face of public housing? In W. Van Vliet (Ed.), Affordable housing and urban redevelopment in the United States (pp. 135–157). Thousand Oaks: Sage.Google Scholar
  171. Sellström, E., & Bremberg, S. (2006). The significance of neighborhood context to child and adolescent health and well-being: A systematic review of multilevel studies. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 34(5), 544–554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  172. Shouls, S., Congdon, P., & Curtis, S. (1996). Modeling inequality in reported long term illness in the UK. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 50(3), 366–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  173. Simons, R. L., Johnson, C., Beaman, J. J., Conger, R. D., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1996). Parents and peer group as mediators of the effect of community structure on adolescent behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24(1), 145–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  174. Sinclair, J. J., Petit, G. S., Harrist, A. W., Dodge, K. A., & Bates, J. E. (1994). Age differences, and correlates of risk behavior problems. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 17(4), 675–696.Google Scholar
  175. Small, M. L., & Newman, K. (2001). Urban poverty after the truly disadvantaged: The rediscovery of the family, the neighborhood, and culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 23–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  176. South, S. (2001). Issues in the analysis of neighborhoods, families, and children. In A. Booth & A. Crouter (Eds.), Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents and families. London/Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers.Google Scholar
  177. South, S., & Baumer, E. (2000). Deciphering community and race effects on adolescent pre-marital childbearing. Social Forces, 78(4), 1379–1407.Google Scholar
  178. Spencer, M. B. (2001). Resiliency and fragility factors associated with the contextual experiences of low-resource urban African-American male youth and families. In A. Booth & A. Crouter (Eds.), Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents and families (pp. 51–78). London/Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers.Google Scholar
  179. Stansfeld, S., Haynes, M., & Brown, B. (2000). Noise and health in the urban environment. Review of Environmental Health, 15(1), 43–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  180. Steptoe, A., & Feldman, P. J. (2001). Neighborhood problems as sources of chronic stress: Development of a measure of neighborhood problems, and associations with socioeconomic status and health. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 23(3), 177–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  181. Stillerman, K. P., Mattison, D. R., Giudice, L. C., & Woodruff, T. J. (2008). Environmental exposures and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A review of the science. Reproductive Sciences, 15(7), 631–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  182. Sullivan, M. L. (1989). Getting paid: Youth crime and work in the inner city. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
  183. Taylor, M. (1998). Combating the social exclusion of housing estates. Housing Studies, 13(6), 819–832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  184. Teitler, J. O., & Weiss, C. C. (1996). Contextual sex: The effect of school and neighborhood environments on the timing of the first intercourse. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America, New Orleans.Google Scholar
  185. Tiggs, L. M., Browne, I., & Green, G. P. (1998). Social isolation of the urban poor. The Sociological Quarterly, 39(1), 53–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  186. Turley, R. (2003). When do neighborhoods matter? The role of race and neighborhood peers. Social Science Research, 32(1), 61–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  187. van Beckhoven, E., & van Kempen, R. (2003). Social effects of urban restructuring: A case study in Amsterdam and Utrecht, the Netherlands. Housing Studies, 18(6), 853–875.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  188. van der Klaauw, B., & van Ours, J. (2003). From welfare to work: Does the neighborhood matter? Journal of Public Economics, 87(5–6), 957–985.Google Scholar
  189. van Ham, M., & Manley, D. (2010). The effect of neighbourhood housing tenure mix on labour market outcomes: A longitudinal investigation of neighbourhood effects. Journal of Economic Geography, 10(2), 257–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  190. van Kempen, E. (1997). Poverty pockets and life chances. American Behavioral Scientist, 41(3), 430–449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  191. van Os, J. (2004). Does the urban environment cause psychosis? The British Journal of Psychiatry, 184(4), 287–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  192. Vartanian, T. P. (1999a). Adolescent neighborhood effects on labor market and economic outcomes. The Social Service Review, 73(3), 142–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  193. Vartanian, T. P. (1999b). Childhood conditions and adult welfare use. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(1), 225–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  194. Veysey, B. M., & Messner, S. F. (1999). Further testing of social disorganization theory: An elaboration of Sampson and Groves’s ‘community structure and Crime’. Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency, 36(2), 156–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  195. Vrijheid, M. (2000). Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfill sites: A review of epidemiologic literature. Environmental health Perspectives, Supplement, 108(1), 101–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  196. Wacquant, L. (1993). Urban outcasts: Stigma and division in the black American ghetto and the French periphery. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 17(3), 366–383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  197. Wandersman, A., & Nation, M. (1998). Urban neighborhoods and mental health: Psychological contributions to understanding toxicity, resilience, and interventions. American Psychologist, 53(6), 647–656.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  198. Weinberg, B. A., Reagan, P. B., & Yankow, J. J. (2004). Do neighborhoods affect work behavior? Evidence from the NLSY79. Journal of Labor Economics, 22(4), 891–924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  199. Wilson, W. J. (1997). When work disappears. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
  200. Zapata, B. C., Rebolledo, A., Atalah, E., Newman, B., & King, M. (1992). The influence of social and political violence on the risk of pregnancy complications. American Journal of Public Health, 82(5), 685–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  201. Zenk, S. N., Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., James, S. A., Bao, S., & Wilson, M. I. (2005). Neighborhood racial composition, neighborhood poverty, and spatial accessibility of supermarkets in metropolitan Detroit. American Journal of Public Health, 95(4), 660–667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of Urban Studies and PlanningWayne State UniversityDetroitUSA

Personalised recommendations