Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Organic Farming History and Techniques

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Agroecology and Strategies for Climate Change

Part of the book series: Sustainable Agriculture Reviews ((SARV,volume 8))

Abstract

Organic farming involves holistic production systems that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and genetically modified organisms, thereby minimizing their deleterious effect on environment. Agriculture area under organic farming ranges from 0.03% in India to 11.3% in Austria. Organic farming is beneficial for natural resources and the environment. Organic farming is a system that favors maximum use of organic materials and microbial fertilizers to improve soil health and to increase yield. Organic farming has a long history but show a recent and rapid rise. This article explains the development stages, techniques and status of organic farming worldwide. The sections are: the development and essential characteristics of organic farming; the basic concepts behind organic farming; historical background; developmental era of organic farming; methods of organic farming; relevance of organic farming in the Indian context; comparative account between organic farming and conventional farming; importance of organic farming in environmentally friendly approaches; working with natural cycles; relevance of organic crop production in food security; yield potential and trends of organic farming; rural economic linkage its scope and limitations; and legislation procedures adopted by various countries. Organisations and financial aspects of organic farming are briefly discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adam D (2001) Nutritionists question study of organic food, Nature 412, 666. In: 12th international IFOAM scientific conference, Mar del Plata, Argentinean, 1998, pp 147–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Aguilera-Gomez LI, Ramirez-Moreles P, Frias-Hernandez JT, Chapa- Elizondo A, Olalde-Portugal V (1998) Influence of Glomus fasciculatum on physiology and growth of three kinds of maize. Phyton-Int J Exp Bot 62:101–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Albrecht H, Mattheis A (1998) The effect of organic and integrated farming on rare arable weeds on the Forschungsverbund Agrarokosysteme Munchen (FAM) Research Station in Southern Bavaria. Biol Conserv 86:347–356

    Google Scholar 

  • Allan P, Kovach M (2000) The capitalist composition of organic: the potential of markets in fulfilling the promise of organic agriculture. Agric Hum Values 17:221–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous (2000) Principles of organic farming. Danish Research Centre for Organic Farming (DARCOF), Foulum, 36 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronsson H, Torstensson G, Bergstr¨om L (2007) Leaching and crop uptake of N, P and K from organic and conventional cropping systems on a clay soil. Soil Use Manag 23:71–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Axelsen JAA, Elmholt S (1998) Scenarium om 100% økologisk jordbrug i Danmark, A3.4, Jordbundens biologi, Rapport for Bichel-Udvalget

    Google Scholar 

  • Badgley C, Perfecto I (2007) Can organic agriculture feed the world? Renew Agric Food Syst 22:80–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Badgley C, Moghtader J, Quintero E, Zakern E, Chappell J, Avil´es-V´azquez K, Samulon A, Perfecto I (2007) Organic agriculture and the global food supply. Renew Agric Food Syst 22:86–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Bateman DI, Hughes GO, Lampkin NH, Midmore P, Ray C (1993) Pluriactivity and the rural economy in less favoured areas of wales. Report for the ESRC, Department of Economics and Agricultural Economics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth

    Google Scholar 

  • Bengtsson J, Ahnström J, Weibull AC (2005) The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis. J Appl Ecol 42:261–269

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry PM, Sylvester-Bradley R, Philipps L, Hatch DJ, Cuttle SP, Rayns FW, Gosling P (2002) Is the productivity of organic farms restricted by the supply of available nitrogen? Soil Use Manag 18:248–255

    Google Scholar 

  • Berzsenyi Z, Gyorffy B, Lap D (2000) Effect of crop rotation and fertilization on maize and wheat yields and yield stability in a long-term experiment. Eur J Agr 13(2–3):225–244

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya P, Gehlot D (2003) Current status of regulatory mechanism in organic farming. Fertilizer News 49(11):33–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Blum WEH, Buesing J, Montanella L (2004) Research needs in support of the European thematic strategy for soil protection. Trends Anal Chem 23:680–685

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boerner REJ, DeMars BG, Leicht PN (1996) Spatial patterns of mycorrhizal infectiveness of soils long a successional chronosequence. Mycorrhiza 6:79–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Borlaug NE (1970) The green revolution, peace and humanity-nobel Lecture, December,11,970, Agbioworld, Tuskegee Institute, AL 36087–0085, USA. www.agbioworld.org/biotech-info/topics/borlaug/nobelspeech.html. Accessed 24 Nov 2007

  • Bossio DA, Scow KM (1998) Impact of carbon and flooding on PLFA profiles and substrate utilization patterns of soil microbial communities. Microb Ecol 35:265–278

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouwman AF, van der Hoek KW, Eickhout B, Soenario I (2005) Exploring changes in world ruminant production systems. Agric Syst 84:121–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Braae L, Nøhr H, Petersen BS (1988) Fuglefaunaen påkonventionelle of økologiske landbrug, Miljøprojekt 102, Danish Environmental Projection Agency, Copnehagen

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady NC, Weil RR (1999) The nature and properties of soils, 12th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, pp 468–469

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruinsma J (2003) World agriculture towards 2015/2030–An FAO perspective. Earthscan, London, 432p

    Google Scholar 

  • Cacek T, Langner L (1986) The economic implications of organic farming. Am J Altern Agric 1(1):25–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassman KG, Dobermann AD, Walters DT (2002) Agroecosystems, N-use efficiency and N management. Ambio 31:132–140

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassman KG, D¨obermann AD, Walters DT, Yang H (2003) Meeting cereal demand while protecting natural resources and improving environmental quality. Ann Rev Environ Resour 28:10.1–10.44

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain DE, Wilson JD, Fuller RJ (1999) A comparison of bird populations on organic and conventional farm systems in southern Britain. Biol Conserv 88:307–320

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke N, Cloke P, Barnett C, Malpass A (2008) The spaces and ethics of organic food. J Rural Stud 24(3):219–230

    Google Scholar 

  • Cobb DR, Feber A, Hopkins L, Stockdale T, O’Riordan B, Clements L, Firbank K, Goulding SJ, Macdonald D (1999) Integrating the environmental and economic consequences of converting to organic agriculture: evidence from a case study. Land Use Policy 16:207–221

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman DC (1989) Agro-ecosystems and sustainable agriculture. Ecology 70:15–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Conacher J, Conacher A (1998) Organic farming and environment, with particular reference to Australia: a review. Biol Agric Hortic 6:45–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtney P, Errington A (2000) The role of small towns in the local economy and some implications for development policy. Local Econ 15(4):280–301

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtney P, Hill G, Roberts D (2006) The role of natural heritage in rural development: an analysis of economic linkages in Scotland. J Rural Stud 22(4):469–484

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtney P, Mayfield L, Tranter R, Jones P, Errington A (2007) Small towns as ‘sub-poles’ in English rural development: Investigating rural–urban linkages using sub-regional social accounting matrices. Geoforum 38(6):1219–1232

    Google Scholar 

  • Cranbrook C (2006) The real choice: how local foods can survive the supermarket onslaught. CPRE, London, 24 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran J, Blackburn R (1994) Small Firms and Local Economic Networks. Chapman, London, 224 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Dai J (1999) Quality identification and logo systems for agricultural products in France. World Agric 243:11–12 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniell TJ, Husband R, Fitter AH, Young JPW (2001) Molecular diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonising arable crops. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 36:203–209

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dann PR, Derrick JW, Dumaresq DC, Ryan MH (1996) The response of organic and conventionally grown wheat to superphosphate and reactive phosphate rock. Aust J Exp Agric 36:71–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Darnhofer I (2005) Organic farming and rural development: some evidence from Austria. Sociol Rural 45(4):308–323

    Google Scholar 

  • Dekkers TBM, Vander Werff PA (2001) Mutualistic functioning of indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizae in spring barley and winter wheat after cessation of long-term phosphate fertilization. Mycorrhiza 10:195–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Denison RF, Bryant DC, Kearney TE (2004) Crop yields over the first nine years of LTRAS, a long-term comparison of field crop systems in a Mediterranean climate. Field Crops Res 86:267–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Diercks R (1986) Alternativen im Landbau: Eine kritische Gesamtbilanz. Ulmer, Stuttgart, pp 280–291

    Google Scholar 

  • Du XG, Wang HM (2001) An introduction to organic farming. China Agricultural University Press, Beijing, in Chinese

    Google Scholar 

  • Duden R (1987) Image ans Qualitat von Tomaten. Gordian 6:118–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyson T (1999) World food trends and prospects to 2025. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:5929–5936

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards JG, Howells O (2001) The origin and hazard of inputs to crop protection in organic farming systems: are they sustainable? Agric Syst 67:31–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Eickhout B, Bouwman AF, Van Zeijts H (2006) The role of nitrogen in world food production and environmental sustainability. Agric Ecosyst Environ 116:4–14

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eltun R (1996) The Apelsvoll cropping system experiment, III. Yield and grain quality of cereals. Nor J Agric Sci 10:7–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Errington A, Courtney P (2000) Tracing the “Economic Footprint” of market towns: a methodological contribution to rural policy analysis. In: Agricultural Economics Society Annual Conference, Manchester

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans LT (1998) Feeding the ten billions – plants and population growth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 247p

    Google Scholar 

  • Evers AM (1989a) Effects of different fertilization practices on the carotene content of carrot. J Agric Sci Finland 61:7–14

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evers AM (1989b) Effects of different fertilization practices on the glucose, fructose, sucrose, taste and texture of carrot. J Agric Sci Finland 61:113–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Evers AM (1989c) Effects of different fertilization practices on growth, yield and drymatter content of carrot. J Agric Sci Finland 60:135–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Faerge J, Magid J (2003) Assessment on organic farming benchmark trials in Denmark. Acta Agric Scand Sec B Soil Plant Sci 53:64–68

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2002) Organic agriculture, environment and food security. Environment and Natural Resources Service Sustainable Development Department. Retrieved July 20 2007 from http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4137E/y4137e00.htm#TopOfPage

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2007) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistical Yearbook, 2005/06, Rome. www.fao.org/statistics/yearbook/vol.11/siteen.asp?page= resources. Accessed 28 Ap 2007

  • Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)/World Health Organisation (WHO) (2001) Guidelines for the production, processing, labeling and marketing of organically produced foods (GL 32–1 999/2001). Codex Alimentarius, pp 5–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Feber RE, Firbank LG, Johnson PJ, Macdonald DW (1997) The effects of organic farming on pest and non-pest butterfly abundance. Agric Ecosyst Environ 64:133–139

    Google Scholar 

  • Feber RE, Bell J, Johnson PJ, Firbank LG, Macdonald DW (1998) The effects of organic farming on surface-active spider (Araneae) assemblages in wheat in southern England, UK. J Arachnol 26:190–202

    Google Scholar 

  • Freese L, Friedrich R, Kendall D, Tanner S (2000) Variability of deoxynivalenol measurements in barley. J AOAC Int 83:1259–1263

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gabriel D, Roschewitz I, Tscharntke T, Thies C (2006) Beta diversity at different spatial scales: plant communities in organic and conventional agriculture. Ecol Appl 16:2011–2021

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galvez L, Douds DD Jr, Drinkwater LE, Wagoner P (2001) Effect of tillage and farming system upon VAM fungus populations and mycorrhizas and nutrient uptake of maize. Plant Soil 118:299–308

    Google Scholar 

  • Gitay H, Wilson JB, Lee WG (1996) Species redundancy: a redundant concept? J Ecol 84:121–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Gliessman SR (1990) Agro-ecology: researching the ecological basis for sustainable agriculture. Springer, New York, pp 3–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Graf S, Willer H (2001) Organic agriculture in Europe-current status and future prospects of organic farming in twentyfive European countries. Stiftung Okologie and Landbau (SOEL), pp 8–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene CR (2001) U.S. Organic farming emerges in the 90s:Adoption of certified systems. Agriculture Information Bulletin, pp 770

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunapala N, Scow KM (1998) Dynamics of soil microbial biomass and activity in conventional and organic farming systems. Soil Biol Biochem 30:805–816

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haas G, Wetterich F, Köpke U (2001) Comparing intensive, extensified and organic grassland farming in southern Germany by process Life Cycle Assessment. Agric Ecosyst Envion 83:43–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Hald AB (1999) Weed vegetation (wild flora) of long established organic versus conventional cereal fields in Denmark. Ann Appl Biol 134:307–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Hald AB, Reddersen J (1990) Fugleføde i kornmarker- insekter og vilde planter, Miljøprojekt 125, Miljøstyrelsen, Kbh

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall A, Mogyorody V (2001) Organic farmers in Ontario: an examination of the conventionalization argument. Sociol Rural 41(4):399–422

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen H (1981) Comparison of chemical composition and taste of biodynamically and conventionally grown vegetables, Qualitas plantarium. Plant Foods Hum Nutri 30:203–211

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen JW, Jones JW (1996) A systems framework for characterizing farm sustainability. Agric Syst 51:185–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen B, Alrqe HF, Kristensen ES (2001) Approaches to assess the environmental impact of organic farming with particular regard to Denmark. Agric Ecosyst Envion 83:11–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison L (1993) The impact of the agricultural industry on the rural economy— tracking the spatial distribution of farm inputs and outputs. J Rural Stud 9:81–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslberger A (2001) GMO contamination of seeds. Nat Biotechnol 19(7):613

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haslberger A (2010) Genetically modified and organic crops in developing countries: a review of options for food security. Biotechnol Adv 28:160–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedlund K (2002) Soil microbial community structure in relation to vegetation management on former agricultural land. Soil Biol Biochem 34:1299–1307

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hedlund K, Gormsen D (2002) Mycorrhizal colonization of plants in setaside agricultural land. Appl Soil Ecol 19:71–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Helgason T, Daniell TJ, Husband R, Fitter AH, Young JPW (1998) Ploughing up the wood-wide web? Nature 394:431

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henning J (1994) The economics of organic farming in Canada. In: Lampking N, Padel S (eds.) The economics of organic farming: An international perspective. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 143–160

    Google Scholar 

  • Henning J, Baker L, Thomassin P (1991) Economic issues in organic agriculture. Can J Agric Econ 39(4):877–886

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrmann G, Plakolm G (1991) Oekologischer landbau, grundwissenfuer die praxis. Wien, Verlagsunion Agrar, pp 27–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Hetrick BAD, Wilson GWT, Cox TS (1993) Mycorrhizal dependence of modern wheat cultivars and ancestors a synthesis. Can J Bot 71:512–518

    Google Scholar 

  • Hetrick BAD, Wilson GWT, Todd TC (1996) Mycorrhizal response in wheat cultivars, relationship to phosphorus. Can J Bot 74:19–25

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hird V (1997) Double yield. SAFE Alliance, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodtke M, Araujo PA, Kopke U, Almeida DL (1998) Nutritional status, grain yield and N-balance of organically grown maize intercropped with green manure. In: Foguelman D, Lockeretz W (eds.) Organic Agriculture-the Credible Solution for the XXIst Century: Proceedings of the 12th international IFOAM scientific conference, Mar del Plata, Argentinien (1998), pp 135–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Hole DG, Perkins AJ, Wilson JD, Alexander IH, Grice PV, Evans AD (2005) Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biol Conserv 122:113–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Holzschuh A, Steffan-Dewenter I, Kleijn D, Tscharntke T (2007) Diversity of flower-visiting bees in cereal fields: effects of farming system,landscape composition and regional context. J Appl Ecol 44:41–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong CW (1994) Organic farming and the sustainability of agriculture in Korea. Suweon, Korea: Agricultural Science Institute, Rural Development Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • House of Lords Select Committee on European Communities (HLSCEC) (1999) 16th report: organic farming and european union (HMSO, London)

    Google Scholar 

  • Howlett B, Connolly L, Cowan C, Meehan H, Neilsen R (2002) Conversion to organic farming: Case study report. Working Paper DL 3.1. The National Food Centre, Dublin, Ireland

    Google Scholar 

  • IFOAM (1998) Basic standards for organic production and processing. IFOAM General Assembly, Argentinia, Nov 1998

    Google Scholar 

  • IFOAM (2000) Comments on the USDA proposed rule: Submitted by International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. www.ifoam.org/final_comment_06-08.html. Accessed 7 June 2000

  • IFOAM (2010) International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements-The principles organic agriculture. http://www.ifoam.org/about_ifoam/principles/index.html

  • IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements), Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) (2002) Conference conclusions, IFOAM conference on organic guarantee systems- international harmonization and equivalence on organic agriculture, Nuremberg, Germany, 17–19 Feb 2002, pp 11–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Iglesias J, Castillejo J, Castro R (2003) The effects of repeated applications of the molluscicide metaldehyde and the biocontrol nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita on molluscs, earthworms, nematodes, acarids and collembolans: a two-year study in north-west Spain. Pest Manag Sci 59:1217–1224

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ilbery B, Maye D (2005) Food supply chains and sustainability: evidence from specialist food producers in the Scottish/English borders. Land Use Policy 22:331–344

    Google Scholar 

  • International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) (2000) Basic standards for organic production and processing, Fa. Werbedruck, Germany

    Google Scholar 

  • International Trade Centre (ITC) (1999) Organic food and beverages: world supply and major European markets. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), pp 46–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Isart J, Llerena JJ (eds.) (1996) Biodiversity and land use: the role of organic farming. Proceedings of the first ENOF workshop, Barcelona, 1996

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivarson J, Gunnarsson A (2001) Forsok med konventionella och ekologiska odlingsformer 1987–1998, Meddelande fran Sodra Jordbruksfors¨oksdistriktet Nr 53, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, 165 pp (In Swedish)

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson MC (1997) Pluralism in systems thinking and practice. In: Mingers J, Gill A (eds.) Multi methodology: the theory and practice of combining management science methodologies. Wiley, New York, pp 347–378

    Google Scholar 

  • James S (1998) Mixed farming in Africa: the search for order, the search for sustainability. Land Use Policy 5(4):293–317

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson NC (1993) Can fertilisation of soil select less mutualistic mycorrhizae? Ecol Appl 3:749–757

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson NC, Copeland PJ, Crookston RK, Pfleger FL (1992) Mycorrhizae possible explanation for yield decline with continuous corn and soybean. Agron J 84:387–390

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahiluoto H, Vestberg M (1998) The effect of arbuscular mycorrhiza on biomass production and phosphorus uptake from sparingly soluble sources by leek (Allium porrum L.) in Finnish field soils. Biol Agric Hortic 6:65–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahnt G (1986) Biologischer Pflanzenbau: Moeglichkeiten und Grenzen Biologischer Anbausysteme. Ulmer, Stuttgart, pp 19–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaltoft P (1999) Values about nature in organic farming practice and knowledge. Sociol Rural 39(1):40–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirchmann H, Thorvaldsson G (2000) Challenging targets for future agriculture. Eur J Agron 12:145–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirchmann H (1994) Biological dynamic farming an occult form of alternative agriculture. J Agric Environ Ethics 7:173–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirchmann H, Bergstr¨om L, K¨atterer T, Mattsson L, Gesslein S (2007) Comparison of long-term organic and conventional crop-livestock systems in a previously nutrient- depleted soil in Sweden. Agron J 99:960–972

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kleijn D, Berendse F, Smit R, Gilissen N (2001) Agri-environmental schemes do not effectively protect biodiversity in Dutch agricultural landscapes. Nature 413:723–725

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koepf HH, Schaumann W, Pettersson BD (1976) Biologische landwirtschaft. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Suttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs JR, Wilson JD, Bradbury RB, Siriwardena GM (1999) The second silent spring? Nature 400:611–612

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lairon D (2010) Nutritional quality and safety of organic food. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 30:33–41

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lamine C, Bellon S (2009) Conversion to organic farming: a multidimensional research object at the crossroads of agricultural and social sciences. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 29:97–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Lampkin N (1990) Organic farming. Farming Press Book, IPSWICH

    Google Scholar 

  • Lampkin N (1997) Opportunities for profit from organic farming. Paper presented to the RASE Conference: organic farming-science into practice, Royal Agricultural Society of England, Stoneleigh

    Google Scholar 

  • Latif MA, Islam MR, Ali MY, Saleque MA (2005) Validation of the system of rice intensification (SRI) in Bangladesh. Field Crops Res 93:281–292

    Google Scholar 

  • Leu A (2004) Organic agriculture can feed the world, Acres a Voice for Eco-Agric 34(1):1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindner U (1985) Alterrativer Anbau – Alternative im Erwerbsgemusebau? Gemuse 21:412–418

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockeretz W, Madden P (1987) Midwestern organic farming: a ten-year follow up. Am J Altern Agric 2(2):57–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockie S, Lyons K, Lawrence G (2000) Constructing ‘Green’ foods: corporate capital, risk, and organic farming in Australia and New Zealand. Agric Hum Values 17:315–322

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy SB (1994) Are organic foods safer? http://www.inetport.com/~texasbot/lovejy.htm

  • Lundquist EJ, Scow KM, Jackson LE, Uesugi SL, Johnson CR (1999) Rapid response of soil microbial communities from conventional, low input, and organic farming systems to a wet/dry cycle. Soil Biol Biochem 31:1661–1675

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luttikholt (2007) Principles of organic agriculture as formulated by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). NJAS – Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 54:347–360

    Google Scholar 

  • Mader P, Fließbach A, Dubois D, Gunst L, Fried P, Niggli U (2002) Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science 296:1694–1697

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mander U, Mikk M, Kulvik M (1999) Ecological and low intensity agriculture as contributors to landscape and biological diversity. Landsc Urban Plann 46:169–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Manske GGB (1990) Genetic-analysis of the efficiency of VA mycorrhiza with spring wheat. Agric Ecosyst Environ 29:273–280

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsden T, Banks J, Bristow G (2000) Food supply chain approaches: exploring their role in rural development. Sociol Rural 40(4):424–438

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsden T, Banks J, Bristow G (2002) The social management of rural nature: understanding agrarian-based rural development. Environ Plann A 34:809–825

    Google Scholar 

  • May C (2001) New Zealand and the organic market. In: Inaugural OFA national organics conference, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra pp 109–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Midmore P, Dirks J (2003) The development and use of ‘ rapid assessment methods’ in ex-ante and ex-post evaluations of policy initiatives in the rural economy. In: Agricultural economics society annual conference, Seale Hayne Campus, Plymouth University, Plymouth

    Google Scholar 

  • Midmore P, Padel S, Mc Clman H, Isherwood J, Fowler S, Lampking N (2001) Attitudes towards conversion to organic production systems: a study of farmers in England. Institute of Rural Studies, University of Wales, Aberystwyth

    Google Scholar 

  • Morison J, Hine R, Pretty J (2005) Survey and analysis of labour on organic farms in the UK and Republic of Ireland. Int J Agric Sustain 3(1):24–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris C, Hopkins A, Winter M (2001) Comparison of the social, economic and environmental effects of organic. ICM and Conventional Farming, Countryside Agency, Cheltenham

    Google Scholar 

  • Morschel J, Fox DM, Bruno JF (2004) Limiting sediment deposition on roadways, topographic controls on vulnerable roads and cost analysis of planting grass buffer strips. Environ Sci Policy 7:39–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro A (2007) The spatial impact of genetically modified crops. Ecol Econ 67:658–666

    Google Scholar 

  • Niemeyer K, Lombard J (2003) Identifying problems and potential of the conversion to organic farming in South Africa. Paper presented at the 41st annual conference of the Agricultural Economic Association of South Africa (AEASA), Pretoria, South Africa, 2–3 Oct 2003

    Google Scholar 

  • Niggli U, Lockeretz W (1996) Development of research in organic agriculture. In: Stergaard T (ed) Proceedings of the 11th IFOAM international Scientijk conference on fundamentals of organic agriculture, vol 1, pp 11–15, Copenhagen

    Google Scholar 

  • Nonhebel S (2005) Renewable energy and food supply: will there be enough land? Renew Sustain Energy Rev 9:191–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Oehl F, Sieverding E, Mader P, Dubois D, Ineichen K, Boller T, Wiemken A (2004) Impact of long-term conventional and organic farming on the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Oecologia 138:574–583

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oram JO (2003) Regaining the land, Lessons from farmers’ experience with sustainable agriculture in the Philippines. CIIR

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacini C, Wossink A, Giesen G, Vzazana C, Huirne R (2002) Evaluation of sustainability of organic, integrated and conventional farming systems: a farm and field-scale analysis. In: Agriculture, Ecosy and Envi, pp 1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Padel S (2001a) Conversion to organic farming: a typical example of the diffusion of an innovation? Sociol Rural 41(1):40–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Padel S (2001b) Information and advisory services for organic farming in Europe. In: Abstract for 15th ESEE workshop. Wageningen, Aug 2001

    Google Scholar 

  • Parry M, Rosenzweig C, Livermore M (2005) Climate change, global food supply and risk of hunger. Phil Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 360:2125–2138

    Google Scholar 

  • Ploeger AM, Vogtmann H (1996) Product and environment: quality and public health. In: Ostergaard TV (ed.) Fundamentals of organic agriculture. Proceedings of the 11th international IFOAM scientific conference, vol 1, Copenhagen, pp 176–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter C, Burney J (2002) Agricultural multifunctionality in the WTO – legitimate non-trade concern or disguised protectionism? J Rural Stud 18:35–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Pretty JN, Hine RE (2001) Reducing food poverty with sustainable agriculture: a summary of new evidence, Centre for Environment and Society, Essex University,UK. www.essex.ac.uk/ces/esu/occasionalpapers/SAFE%20FINAL%20-%20Pages1-22.pdf. Accessed 29 Dec 2007

  • Pretty JN, Morison JLL, Hine RE (2003) Reducing food poverty by increasing agricultural sustainability in developing countries. Agric Ecosyst Environ 95:217–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Pretty J, Ball A, Lang T, Morison J (2005) Farm costs and food miles: an assessment of the full cost of the UK weekly food basket. Food Policy 30:1–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Pugliese P (2001) Organic farming and sustainable rural development. A multifaceted and promising convergence. Sociol Rural 41(1):112–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Pulleman M, Jongmans A, Marinissen J, Bouma J (2003) Effects of organic versus conventional arable farming on soil structure and organic matter dynamics in a marine loam in the Netherlands. Soil Use Manag 19:157–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Quine TA, Basher LR, Nicholas AP (2003) Tillage erosion intensity in the South Canterbury Dowlands, New Zealnd. Aust J Soil Res 41:789–807

    Google Scholar 

  • Rai M (2006) Organic farming: potentials and strategies; Available on: http://www.icar.org.in/dgspmr/03062005.htm. Retrieved 10 Aug 2009

  • Ram RA, Pathak RK (2008) Integration of organic farming practices for sustainable production of Guava: a case study. Accessed 24 Mar 2008

    Google Scholar 

  • Rauhe K, Leithold G, Michel D (1987) Untersuchungen zur Ertrags- und Humusreproduktion­sleistung der Luzerne auf sandigem Lehmboden in Trockenlagen. Arch. Acker- Pflanzenbau Bodenkd 31:695–702

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reddersen J (1999) Naturindhold i økologisk jordbrug. Natur, miljø og ressourcer i økologisk jordbrug. FQJO Rapport 3, Forskningscenter for Qkologisk Jordbrug, pp 69–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Redman M (ed.) (1992) Organic farming and the countryside: a special report from British organic farmers in conjunction with the soil association. Organic Food and Farm Centre, Bristol

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed N (1995) In: Hull JJ (ed.) 125th Annual Report of the Secretary of the State Horticultural Society of Michigan, Mich. State Hort. Co., East Lansing, pp 68–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Reganold JP, Glover JD, Andrews PK, Hinman HR (2001) Sustainability of three apple production systems. Nature 410:926–929

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Renting H, Marsden T, Banks J (2003a) Understanding alternative food networks: exploring the role of short food supply chains in rural development. Environ Plann A 35:393–411

    Google Scholar 

  • Renting H, Marsden TK, Banks J (2003b) Understanding alternative food networks: exploring the role of short food supply chains in rural development. Environ Plann A 35:393–411

    Google Scholar 

  • Rew LJ, Froud-Williams RJ, Boatman ND (1996) Dispersal of Bromus sterilis and Anthriscus sylvestris seed within arable field margins. Agric Ecosyst Environ 59:107–114

    Google Scholar 

  • Rigby D, Young T, Burton M (2001) The development of and prospects for organic farming in the UK. Food Policy 26(6):599–613

    Google Scholar 

  • Roger FH (1987) Importance of bio-fertilizers in intensive cropping. Haryana Farming, Hisar

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothschild M (1998) The butterfly gardeners by Miriam Rothschild and elive farell, Great Britain, pp128–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Rundlöf M, Smith HG (2006) The effect of organic farming on butterfly diversity depends on landscape context. J Appl Ecol 43:1121–1127

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan MH, Ash J (1999) Effects of phosphorus and nitrogen on growth of pasture plants and VAM fungi in SE Australian soils with contrasting fertiliser histories (conventional and biodynamic). Agric Ecosyst Environ 73:51–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan MH, Graham JH (2002) Is there a role for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in production agriculture? Plant Soil 244:263–271

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan MH, Chilvers GA, Dumaresq DC (1994) Colonisation of wheat by VA mycorrhizal fungi was found to be higher on a farm managed in an organic manner than on a conventional neighbour. Plant Soil 160:33–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Schupbach M (1986) Spritzmittelruckstande in Obst und Gemuse. Deutsche Lebensmittel Rundschau 82(3):76–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuphan W (1975) Yield maximization versus biological value. Qual Plant 24:281–310

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scullion J, Eason WR, Scott EP (1998) The effectivity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi from high input conventional and organic grassland and grass–arable rotations. Plant Soil 204:243–254

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seyfang G (2006) Ecological citizenship and sustainable consumption: examining local organic food networks. J Rural Stud 22(4):383–395

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheehy JE, Peng S, Dobermann A, Mitchell PL, Ferrer A, Yang J, Zou Y, Zhong X, Huang J (2004) Fantastic yields in the system of rice intensification: fact or fallacy? Field Crops Res 88:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheng DZ, Xie JR, Zhang QW (1995) Natural agriculture in Japan. World Agric 195:9–11 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegrist S, Staub D, Pfiffner L, Mäder P (1998) Does organic agriculture reduce soil erodibility? The results of a long-term field study on loess in Switzerland. Agric Ecosyst Environ 69:253–264

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil V (2001) Enriching the earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the transformation of world food production. MIT Press, Cambridge, 338p

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil V (2002) Nitrogen and food production: proteins for human diets. Ambio 31:126–131

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith E, Marsden T (2004) Exploring the ‘limits to growth’ in UK organics: beyond the statistical image. J Rural Stud 20(3):345–357

    Google Scholar 

  • Smithers J, Larmarche J, Joseph A (2008) Unpacking the terms of engagement with local food at the farmers’ market: insights from Ontario. J Rural Stud 24(3):337–350

    Google Scholar 

  • Smukler SM, Sánchez-Moreno S, Fonted SJ, Ferris H, Klonsky K, O’Green AT, Scowb KM, Steenwerthg KL, Jackson LE (2010) Biodiversity and multiple ecosystem functions in an organic farmscape agriculture. Ecosyst Environ 139:80–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Soil Association (2001) The organic food and farming Report 2000. Soil Association Publications

    Google Scholar 

  • Soil Association (2007) Organics market report 2007. Soil Association, Bristol

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiftung Oekologie and Landbau (SOEL) (2003) Organic Agriculture Worldwide 2000–2002/Statistics and Future Prospects. SOEL, Feb 2003. www.ifoam.org

  • Stockdale EA, Lampkin NH, Hovi M, Keatinge R, Lennartsson EKM, Macdonald DW, Padel S, Tattersall FH, Wolfe MS, Watson CA (2001) Agronomic and environmental implications of organic farming systems. Adv Agron 70:261–325

    Google Scholar 

  • Stolton S, Geier B, Jeffrey A (2000) Biodiversity and organic agriculture. Ecology and farming, No. 23, January–April, IFOAM. 22–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Stolze M, Piorr A, Häring A, Dabbert S (2000) The environmental impact of organic farming in Europe. In: Organic farming in Europe: economics and policy, vol 6. University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, pp 1437–6512

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoppler H, Kolsch E, Vogtmann H (1990) Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza in varieties of winter-wheat in a low external input system. Biol Agric Hortic 7:191–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan S, McCann E, Young R, Erickson D (1996) Farmers’ attitudes about farming and the environment: a survey of conventional and organic farmers. J Agric Envion Ethics 9(2):123–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Svensson I (1991) Governmental subsidy to organic farming 1989: “A mail inquiry”. Altern Odl 7:88–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Temperli AT, Künsch U, Schärer H (1982) Einfluss zweier Anbauweisen auf den Nitratgehalt von Kopfsalat, Schweizerische landwirtschaftliche. Forschung 21:167–196

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thorup-Kristensen K, Magid J, Jensen LS (2003) Catch crops and green manures as biological tools in nitrogen management in temperate zones. Adv Agron 79:227–302

    Google Scholar 

  • Torstensson G (1998) Nitrogen delivery and utilization by subsequent crops after incorporation of leys with different plant composition. Biol Agric Hortic 16:129–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Torstensson G, Aronsson H, Bergstrom L (2006) Nutrient use efficiency and leaching of N, P and K of organic and conventional cropping systems in Sweden. Agron J 98:603–615

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trewavas A (2001) Urban myths of organic farming. Nature 410:409–410

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsara M, Gerontidis S, Marathianou M, Kosmas C (2001) The longterm effect of tillage on soil displacement of hilly areas used for growing wheat in Greece. Soil Use Manag 17:113–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Tudge C (2005) Can organic farming feed the world?, Oxford, England. http://www.colintudge.com. Accessed 29 Dec 2007

  • UN Millennium Project (2005) Task force on hunger. In: Sanchez P et al. (ed.) Halving hunger:it can be done. Earthscan, London, 272 p www.unmillenniumproject.org/documents/Hunger-lowres-complete.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • UNDP (2003) Human development report 2003 – millennium development goals: a compact among nations to end human poverty. UNDP, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (1980) Report and recommendations on organic farming. U.S. Department of Agriculture, US Government Priting Office, Washington DC, p 94

    Google Scholar 

  • Uzogara SG (2000) The impact of genetic modification of human foods in the 21st Century: a review. Biotechnol Adv 18:179–206

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Ploeg JD, Renting H (2000) Impact and potential: a comparative review of European rural development practises. Sociol Rural 40(4):529–543

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Elsen T (2000) Species diversity as a task for organic agriculture in Europe. Agric Ecosyst Environ 77:101–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Mansvelt JD, Mulder J (1993) European features for sustainable development: a contribution to the dialogue. Landsc Urban Plann 27:67–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Muysen W, Govers G (2002) Soil displacement and tillage erosion during secondary tillage operations, the case of rotary harrow and seeding equipment. Soil Tillage Res 65:185–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasilikiotis C (2000) Can organic farming Feed the World?, University of California Berkeley, CA. http://nature.berkeley.edu/christos/espm118/articles/organicfeedworld.pdf. Accessed 29 Dec 2007

  • Vogtmann H, Temperli AT, Kunsch U, Eichenberger M, Ott P (1984) Accumulation of nitrates in leafy vegetables grown under contrasting agricultural systems. Biol Agric Hortic 2:51–68

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker BH (1992) Biodiversity and ecological redundancy. Conserv Biol 6:18–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Warner NJ, Allen MF, Macmahon JA (1987) Dispersal agents of vesiculararbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a disturbed arid ecosystem. Mycologia 79:721–730

    Google Scholar 

  • Weibel FP, Bickel R, Leuthold S, Alfoldi T, Niggli U (1998) Are Organically Grown Apples Tastier and Healthier? A comparative field study using conventional and alternative methods to measure fruit quality. In: Foguelman D, Lockeretz W (eds.) Organic agriculture — the credible solution for the XXIst century: Proceedings of the12th international IFOAM scientific conference, Mar del Plata, Argentinean, pp 147–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalen JK, Parmelee RW, Edwards CA (1998) Population Dynamics of Earthworm Communities in Corn Agroecosystems Receiving Organic or Inorganic Fertilizer Amendments. Biol Fertil Soils 27:400–407

    Google Scholar 

  • Wibberley J (1996) A brief history of rotations, economic considerations and future directions. Asp Appl Biol 47:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Willer H, Gillmor D (1992) Organic agriculture in the Republic of Ireland. Irish Geogr 25(2):149–159

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter M (2003) Embeddedness, the new food economy and defensive localism. J Rural Stud 19:23–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter M, Rushbrook L (2003) Literature review of the English rural economy. Research Report Prepared for Defra, Centre for Rural Research, University of Exeter, Exeter

    Google Scholar 

  • Woese K, Lange D, Boess C, Bögl KW (1997) A comparison of organically and conventionally grown foods-results of a review of the relevant literature. J Sci Food Agric 74:281–293

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood ward L (1995) Can organic farming feed the world?, Elm Research Centre, England. www.populationgrowthmigration.nfo/essays/woodwardorganic.html. Accessed 29 Dec 2007

  • Wood D Lenne JM (1999) Agrobiodiversity and natural biodiversity: some parallels. In: Wood D, Lenne J (eds.) Agrobiodiversity: characterization, utilization and management. CABI Publishing, UK, pp 425–  445

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood R, Lenzen M, Dey C, Lundie S (2006) A comparative study of some environmental impacts of conventional and organic farming in Australia. Agric Syst 89(2–3):324–348

    Google Scholar 

  • Youngberg EG, Parr JG, Papendick RL (1984) Potential benefits of organic farming practices for wildlife and natural resources. Trans N Am Wildlife Nat Resour Conf 49:141–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu HF, Dai JY (1995) The trend of thoughts in modem agriculture. World Agric 200:9–11 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Yussefi M, Willer H (2003) The world of organic agriculture-statistics and future prospects. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). www.soel.de/inhalte/publikation/s/s-74.pdf

  • Zehnder G, Gurr GM, Kühne S, Wade MR, Wratten SD, Wyss E (2007) Arthropod pest management in organic crops. Annu Rev Entomol 52:57–80

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu Y, Chen H, Fan J, Wang Y, Li J, Chen J, Fan S, Yang L, Hu H, Leung TW, Mew PS, Teng ZW, Mundt CC (2000) Genetic diversity and disease control in rice. Nature 406:718–722

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zwankhuizen MJ, Govers F, Zadoks JC (1998) Development of potato late blight epidemics: disease foci, disease gradients, and infection sources. Phytopathology 88:754–763

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali University, Banasthali, Rajasthan, 304022, India

    Kambaska Kumar Behera, Afroz Alam, Sharad Vats & Vinay Sharma

  2. University Departments of Botany, Ranchi University, Ranchi, India

    Hunuman Pd. Sharma

Authors
  1. Kambaska Kumar Behera
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Afroz Alam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sharad Vats
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Hunuman Pd. Sharma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Vinay Sharma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kambaska Kumar Behera .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. INRA-CMSE-PME, rue Sully 17, Dijon, 21000, France

    Eric Lichtfouse

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Behera, K.K., Alam, A., Vats, S., Sharma, H.P., Sharma, V. (2012). Organic Farming History and Techniques. In: Lichtfouse, E. (eds) Agroecology and Strategies for Climate Change. Sustainable Agriculture Reviews, vol 8. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1905-7_12

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation