Human Biohistory

Abstract

Human biohistory is learning about human situations against the background of the story of life on Earth. One of its key features is recognition that the evolutionary emergence of the human capacity for culture was one of the great watersheds in the history of life. Human culture has become a new kind of force in the biosphere – with profound and far reaching impacts not only on humans themselves but also on the rest of the living world. The chapter briefly discusses some important biohistorical principles, including cultural maladaptation and cultural reform, technoaddiction and the evolutionary health principle. Cultural evolution has recently resulted in patterns of human activity across the globe of a magnitude and of a kind that are unsustainable. If present trends continue unabated the ecological collapse of civilisation is inevitable. The future wellbeing of humankind will depend on big changes in the scale, intensity and nature of human activities on Earth. The best hope for the future lies in a rapid transition to a society that is truly in tune with, sensitive to and respectful of the processes of life which underpin our existence. This is referred to as a biosensitive society. However, there will be no transition to biosensitivity unless there come about profound changes in the worldview, assumptions and priorities of our society’s dominant culture.

Appendices

Appendix

1.1 A Transition Framework

This Appendix introduces a framework designed to facilitate thinking and communicating about the ecological and health implications of different options for the future. It recognises the crucial role of human culture in the system, and it is based on biohistorical principles discussed in this chapter.

The transition framework is depicted in Fig. 7.4. It is basically an extended version of the ‘biosensitivity triangle’ (Fig. 7.3) and it also incorporates some of the features of the ‘biohistorical framework’ depicted in Fig. 7.2.

Fig. 7.4

The transition framework

1.2 Human Health Needs and Ecosystem Health Needs

In the biosensitivity triangle (Fig. 7.3), the two boxes on the right-hand side are Healthy people and Healthy ecosystems, which are our ultimate goals in planning for a biosensitive future. However, from the planner’s standpoint what is actually more relevant are the immediate requirements for health (e.g. clean air and water for human health, and maintaining biodiversity and soil fertility for ecosystem health). These health requirements are called Human health needs and Ecosystem health needs in Fig. 7.4.

Options for the future must be assessed ultimately in terms of their impacts on these health needs. Boxes 7.1and 7.2are working check lists of important health needs of humans and of ecosystems respectively.

1.3 Biophysical Environment

This set of factors has been inserted into the triangle because the impacts of human activities on the health needs of people and ecosystems are sometimes indirect, in that the ultimate effect on health is the result of changes brought about in the biophysical environment.

For example, the human activities that result in the release into the environment of CFCs lead to chemical reactions in the atmosphere and the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere. This change in turn results in an increase in the ultraviolet radiation at the Earth’s surface, which interferes with the health both of ecosystems and of humans.

Another example is provided by cases when the application of artificial fertilisers to farmland leads to eutrophication in creeks and rivers. The consequent excessive growth of algae results in anoxia in the aquatic ecosystem and then to loss of biodiversity and also to the production of toxins which can cause illness, even death, in humans and other large animals.

On the other hand, of course, many undesirable impacts of human activities on human and ecosystem health are direct – such as the effects of tobacco smoking on human health and the effects of oil spills on local fauna.

Recognising the crucial role of culture in determining the health both of humans and of the ecosystems on which they depend, Human societyhas been divided into two categories: Biophysical optionsand Cultural options.

1.3.1 Biophysical Options

Biophysical options include the biological and physical aspects of human situations that can be influenced by people’s decisions and that directly or indirectly affect the all-important health needs of humans and ecosystems.

Biophysical options are subdivided into four sub-categories:

• Human population– such as numbers of people, population density, population age structure

• Human activities– collective– such as manufacturing, farming, military activities and transportation.

• Human activities– individuals– such as lifestyle options, travel patterns, physical exercise and consumer behaviour

• Artefacts ¹⁷– such as buildings, roads, machines, vehicles and furniture.

1.3.2 Cultural Options

Human activities are to a large extent governed by Societal arrangements,such as the prevailing economic system, governmental regulations and the institutional structure of society.

These social arrangements are in turn determined by the worldview, assumptions and priorities of the dominant Culture.

For example, the cultural assumption that the best thing for our society is continuing economic growth, involving ever-increasing use of resources and energy, is a major factor affecting governmental economic policies, and consequently influencing human activities and, ultimately, the health of our planet’s ecosystems.

1.4 Making Use of the Transition Framework

The transition framework emphasises the fact that the ultimate objective in planning for a biosensitive society is the health both of humans and of the ecosystems on which they depend.

The framework provides a useful starting point for assessing policy options for the future – from the level of individuals and families through to the level of national governments.

In our own work we have made use of the framework to construct a check list of the essential changes that will be necessary in different parts of the total system for the achievement of biosensitivity (see www.natsoc.org.au/biosensitivefutures/vision).

Box 7.1 Human Health Needs

This working list of human health needs is based on the evolutionary health principle and our knowledge of the conditions of life in the long natural, or hunter-gatherer phase of human existence.

• Physical

  • Clean air

  • Clean water

  • Healthy (natural) diet

  • Healthy (natural) physical activity

  • Noise levels within the natural range

  • Minimal contact with microbial or metazoan parasites and pathogens

  • Natural contact with environmental non-pathogenic microbes

  • Electromagnetic radiation at natural levels

  • Protection from extremes of weather

• Psychosocial

  • Emotional support networks

  • Conviviality

  • Co-operative small-group interaction

  • Creative behaviour

  • Learning and practising manual skills

  • Recreational activities

  • Variety in daily experience

  • Sense of personal involvement/purpose

  • Sense of belonging

  • Sense of responsibility

  • Sense of challenge and achievement

  • Sense of comradeship and love

  • Sense of security

Box 7.2 The Health Needs of Ecosystems

In light of our knowledge of the effects of various human activities on ecosystem health at the present time, we can put together a check list of ecosystem health needs, as follows:

• The absence of polluting gases or particles in the atmosphere which significantly disrupt natural cycles and processes and change the climate

• The absence of polluting gases or particles in the atmosphere which interfere with living processes (e.g. particulate hydrocarbons from combustion of diesel fuel, sulphur oxides)

• Box 7.2 (continued) The absence of substances in the atmosphere (e.g. CFCs) that result in destruction of the ozone layer in the stratosphere that protects living organisms from the ultraviolet radiation from the sun

• The absence of chemical compounds in oceans, lakes, rivers and streams in concentrations harmful to living organisms (e.g. persistent organic pollutants – POPs)

• No ionising radiation that can interfere with the normal processes of life and photosynthesis

• The absence of chemical compounds in the soil that can interfere with the normal processes of life (e.g. persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals)

• Soil loss no greater than soil formation (i.e. no soil erosion)

• No increase in soil salinity and soil sodicity

• The maintenance of the biological integrity of soil (i.e. maintaining a rich content of organic matter)

• Intact nutrient cycles in agricultural ecosystems over long periods of time (requiring return of nutrients to farmland)

• The maintenance of biodiversity in regional ecosystems (including aquatic ecosystems)