Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cocoa

  • Chapter
Virus and Virus-like Diseases of Major Crops in Developing Countries

  • 522 Accesses

Abstract

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is a crop of ancient cultivation in central America and was introduced to the Caribbean, West Africa, South-East Asia and the Pacific overhe 16-19th centuries (Purseglove, 1977). Although grown over a wide latitudinal range (from the equator to as far as 18°S in Brazil) cocoa requires rather exacting climatic conditions to thrive (Williams et al. 1987), including suitable ranges for temperature and rainfall, and availability of shade.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ackonor, J.B., and Morjifa, D.K. 1999. Parasitism and predation in Planococcoides njalensis (Laing). (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on cacao in Ghana. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad) 76: 269–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adomako, B., and Adu-Ampomah Y. 2000. Reflections on the yield of Upper Amazon cocoa hybrids in Ghana with reference to breeding for cocoa swollen shoot virus resistant varieties. Cocoa Growers’ Bull., 2000, No. 52, pp. 33–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ackonor, J.B., and Morjifa, D.K. 1999. Parasitism and predation in Planococcoides njalensis (Laing). (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on cacao in Ghana. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad) 76: 269–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adomako, B., and Adu-Ampomah Y. 2000. Reflections on the yield of Upper Amazon cocoa hybrids in Ghana with reference to breeding for cocoa swollen shoot virus resistant varieties. Cocoa Growers’ Bull., 2000, No. 52, pp. 33–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adomako, D., Owusu, G.K., and Oduro, K.K. 1974. Purification of cocoa necrosis virus from cocoa leaves. Phytopathology, 64: 1325–1330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adomako, D., Lesemann, D.E., Paul, H.L., and Owuwu, G.K. 1983. Improved methods for the purification and detection of cocoa swollen shoot virus. Ann. appl. Biol. 103: 109–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adu-Ampomah, Y., Owusu, G.K., Sackey, S., Padi, B., and Abdul-Karimu, A. 1996. Use of gamma rays to induce mutants resistant to cocoa swollen shoot disease in Theobroma cacao L. Pl. Breeding 115: 74–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ampofo, S.T. 1997. The current cocoa swollen shoot disease situation in Ghana. Proc. First Inter. Cocoa Pests and Diseases Seminar, Accra, Ghana, 6-10 November, 1995. pp 175–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous, 1946. Virus research. In: Rept. West African Cocoa Res. Inst.for 1944/45, p. 12–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous, 1947. Virus research. In: Rept. West African Cocoa Res. Inst. for 1945/46, pp. 11–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous, 1948. Virus research. Swollen shoot and other diseases of cacao. I. A new cacao virus? In: Rept. West African Cocoa Res. Inst.for 1947/48, pp. 11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous, 1950. Virus research. In: Rept. West African Cocoa Res. Inst. for 1948/49, pp. 12–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous, 1953. Biological control of mealybugs. Rept. of the Cocoa Res. Inst. of Ghana, 1950-51 pp 40–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Asante, S.K., Owusu-Manu, E., and Mordjifa, D.K. 1988. Studies on the natural enemies of cacao mealybug. Rept. of the Cocoa Res. Inst. Ghana, 1986/87, pp 33–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Attafuah, A. 1965. Occurrence of cocoa viruses in wild plant species in Ghana. Ghana J. Agric. Sci. 5: 97–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attafuah, A., Blencowe, J.W., and Brunt, A.A. 1963. Swollen shoot disease in the Sierra Leone. Trop. Agric. Trinidad, 40: 229–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attafuah, A., and Brunt, A.A. 1960. Virus research: classification and comparison of isolates. In: Rep. of the West African Cocoa Res. Inst.for 1958/59, p. 16–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, R.E.D., and Dale, W.T. 1947. Notes on virus diseases of cacao. Annals appl. Biol., 34: 60–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigger, M. 1976. Oscillations of tropical insect populations. Nature 259: 207–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigger, M. 1993a. Time series analysis of variation in abundance of selected cocoa insects and fitting of simple linear predictive models. Bull. Ent. Res. 83: 153–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigger, M. 1993b. Ant-homopteran interactions in a tropical ecosystem. Descriptions of an experiment on cocoa in Ghana. Bull. Ent. Res. 83: 475–505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blencowe, J.W. 1971. Cocoa and coconuts in Malaysia. The Planter 47: 299–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blencowe, J.W., Brunt, A.A., Kenten, R.H., and Lovi, N.K. 1963. A new virus disease of cocoa in Sierra Leone. Trop. Agric., Trinidad 40: 233–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouhida, M., Lockhart, B.E.L., and Olszewski, N.E. 1993. An analysis of the complete sequence of sugarcane bacilliform virus genome infectious to banana and rice. J. Gen. Virol. 74: 15–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Box, H.E. 1945. Insect transmission of the’ swollen shoot’ virus in West Africa. Nature 155: 608–609

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunt, A.A., and Kenten, R.H. 1971. Viruses infecting cacao. Rev. Plant Pathol. 50: 591–602.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunt, A.A., and Kenten, R.H. 1963. The use of protein in the extraction of cocoa swollen shoot virus from cocoa leaves. Virology. 19: 388–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, C.A.M. 1975. The distribution of mealybug vectors of CSSV within trees. Proc. 4 th Conf. WestAfric. cocoa entomologists, 9-13 December 1974, Legon, Ghana, pp67–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, C.A.M. 1983. The assessment of mealybugs (Pseudococcides) and other Homoptera on mature cocoa trees in Ghana. Bull. Ent. Res. 73: 137–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, C.A.M. 1984. The influence of overhead shade and fertilizers on the Homoptera of mature Upper-Amazon cocoa trees in Ghana. Bull. Ent. Res. 74: 163–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, W. 1956. Notes on some mealybugs (Coccidae) of economic importance in Ceylon. FAO Plant Prot. Bull. 4: 49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan, M-S., and Jeger, M.J. 1994. An analytical model of plant virus disease dynamics with rouging and replanting. J. appl. Ecol. 31: 413–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ciferri, R. 1948. A virus disease of cacao in Columbia and Santa Dominigo. Review Fac. Mac Agro.Columbia, 8: 79–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornwall, P.B. 1958. Movements of the vectors of virus diseases of cacao in Ghana. I. Canopy movement in and between trees. Bull. Ent. Res. 49: 613–630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornwall, P.B. 1960. Movements of the vectors of virus diseases of cacao in Ghana, n. Wind movements and aerial dispersal. Bull. Ent. Res. 51: 175–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cotterell, G.S. 1943. Entomology. Rep. Central Cocoa Res. Stat. Tafo, Gold Coast 1938-1942, pp 46–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dale, W.T. 1962. Diseases and pests of cocoa. Virus diseases. In: Wills JB, ed. Agriculture and Land Use in Ghana. London, UK: Oxford University Press, pp 286–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diekman, M. 1999. Options for movement of cacao germplasm in relation to the risk of moving pests. Pl. Gen. Resources Newsl. No. 117, 58–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ding, S.W., Mackenzie, A., Torronen, M., Gibbs, A. 1990. Nucleotide sequence of the virion protein gene of cacao yellow mosaic tymovirus. Nuc. Acids Res. 18, p. 5886.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donald, R.G. 1956. The natural enemies of some Pseudo-coccidae in the Gold Coast. J. West Africa Science Assoc. 2(1): 48–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dufour, B. 1991. Place et importance des différentes espèces d’insectes dans l’écologie du CSSV (cocoa swollen shoot virus) au Togo. Café, Cacao, Thé, 35: 197–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frison, E.A., and Feliu, E. 1989. FAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the safe movement of cocoa germplasm. FAO/IBPGR, Rome. 29 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fütterer, J., Rothnie, H.M., Hohn, T., and Potrykus, I. 1997. Rice tungro bacilliform virus open reading frames II and in are translated from polycistronic pregenomic RNA by leaky scanning. J. Virol. 71: 7984–7989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fütterer, J., Potrykus, I., Valles-Brau, M.P., Dasgupta, I., Hull, R., and Hohn, T. 1994. Splicing in a plant pararetrovirus. Virology 198: 663–670.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimsley, N., Hohn, B., Hohn, T., and Walden, R. 1986. Agroinfon, an alternative route for viral infection of plants by using the Ti plasmid. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83: 3282–3286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guerra-Peraza, O., de Tapia, M., Hohn, T., and Hemmings-Mieszczak, M. 2000. Interaction of the cauliflower mosaic virus coat protein with the pregenomic RNA leader. J. Virol. 74: 2067–2072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagen, L.S. 1994. Analyse du génome du ‘cacao swollen shoot virus’ et mise au point d’une méthode d’infection du cacaoyer. PhD dissertation Université de Paris 6, France 193 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagen, L.S., Jacquemond, M., Lepingle, A., Lot, H., and Tepfer, M. 1993. Nucleotide sequence and genomic organization of cacao swollen shoot virus. Virology 196: 619–628.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagen, L.S., Lot, H., Godon, C., Tepfer, M., and Jacquemond, M. 1994. Infection of Theobroma cacao using cloned DNA of cacao swollen shoot virus and particle bombardment. Phytopathology 84: 1239–1243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, A.D., and Heatherington, W. 1957. Arrest of the swollen-shoot virus disease of cacao in the Gold Coast by controlling the mealybug vectors with systemic insecticide dimefox. Ann. appl. Biol. 45: 473–840.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herzog, E., Guerra-Peraza, O., and Hohn, T. 2000. The rice tungro bacilliform virus gene II product interacts with the coat protein domain of the viral gene III polyprotein. J. Virology 74: 2073–2083.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann, K., Sackey, S.T., Maiss, E., Adomako, D., and Vetten, H.J. 1997. Immunocapture polymerase chain reaction for the detection and characterization of cacao swollen shoot virus 1A isolates. Phytopathology 145: 205–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann, K., Uhde, C., Lesemann, D.E., Sackey, S.T., Adomako, D., and Vetten, H.J. 1999. Production, characterization and application of monoclonal antibodies to the cacao swollen shoot virus isolate 1A. J. PhytoPathol. 147: 725–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hohn, T., Corsten, S., Dominguez, D., Fütterer, J., Kirk, D., Hemmings-Mieszczak, M., Pooggin, M., Scharer-Hernandez, N., and Ryabova, L. 2001. Shunting is a translation strategy used by plant pararetroviruses (Caulimoviridae). Micron 32: 51–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Q., and Hartung, J.S. 2001. Cloning and sequence analysis of an infectious clone of citrus yellow mosaic virus that can infect sweet orange via Agrobacterium-mediated inoculation. J. Gen. Virol. 82: 2549–2558.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, J.d’A., and Ollennu, L.A.A. 1993. The virobacterial agglutination test as a rapid means of detecting cocoa swollen shoot virus. Ann. app. Biol. 122: 299–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes J.d’A., and Ollennu, L.A.A. 1994. Mild strain protection of cocoa in Ghana against cocoa swollen shoot virus — a review. Pl. Pathol. 43: 442–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, J.d’A., Adomako, D., and Ollennu, L.A.A. 1995. Evidence from the virobacterial agglutination test for the existence of eight serogroups of cocoa swollen shoot virus. Ann. appl. Biol. 127: 297–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacquot, E., Hagen, L.S., Jacquemond, M., and Yot, P. 1996. The open reading frame 2 product of cacao swollen shoot badnavirus is a nucleic acid-binding protein. Virology 225: 191–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacquot, E., Hagen, L.S., Michler, P., Rohfritsch, O., Stussi-Garaud, C., Keller, M., Jacquemond, M., and Yot, P. 1999. In situ localization of cacao swollen shoot virus in agroinfected Theobroma cacao. Arch. Virol. 144: 259–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeger, M.J., and Thresh, J.M. 1993. Modelling reinfection of replanted cocoa by swollen shoot virus in pandemically diseased areas. J. applied Ecol. 30: 187–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeger, M.J., and Chan, M-S. 1995. Theoretical aspects of epidemics: uses of analytical models to make strategic management decisions. Can. J. Pl. Pathol. 17: 109–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeger, M.J. 1997. Theoretical considerations in the epidemiology and control of vector-borne diseases of perennial crops, such as lethal yellowing-like diseases of coconut. In: International workshop on lethal yellowing like diseases of coconut, Elmina, Ghana, Nov. 1995. (eds. S.J. Eden-Green and F. Ofori). Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. pp 239–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeger, M.J., van den Bosch, F., Madden, L.V., and Holt, J. 1998. A model for analysing plantvirus transmission characteristics and epidemic development. IMA Math. Appl. Med. Biol. 15: 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenten R.H. 1972. The purification and some properties of cocoa necrosis virus, a serotype of tomato black ring virus. Ann. appl. Biol. 71: 119–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenten, R.H. 1977. Cocoa necrosis virus, Kew, Commonwealth Mycological Institute (CMI/AAB Descriptions of Plant Viruses No. 173).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenten, R.H., and Legg, J.T. 1965. Observations on the purification and properties of cocoa swollen shoot virus. Ghana J. Sci. 5: 221–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenten, R.H., and Legg, J.T. 1968a. Purification and properties of cocoa swollen shoot virus (CSSV) and cocoa mottle leaf virus (CMLV). Rept. Cocoa Res. Inst. Ghana for 1965/66, pp 23-24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenten, R.H., and Legg, J.T. 1968b. Purification and properties of cocoa swollen shoot virus. Rept. Cocoa Res. Inst. Ghana for 1966/67, pp 22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenten, R.H., and Legg, J.T. 1971. Serological relationships of some viruses from cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in Ghana. Ann. appl. Biol. 67: 195–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight, R., and Tinsley, T.W. 1958. Some histological observations on virus infected Theobroma cacao L. Ann. appl. Biol. 46: 7–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laco, G.S., and Beachy, R.N. 1994. Rice tungro bacilliform virus encodes reverse transcriptase DNA polymerase and RNAse H activities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 2654–2658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legg, J.T., and Agbodjan, F.X. 1969. Swollen shoot disease. Rept. Of the Cocoa Res. Inst. Ghana for 1967/68, pp 23-25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legg, J.T., and Lockwood, G. 1981. Resistance of cocoa to swollen-shoot virus in Ghana. I. Field trials. Ann. appl. Biol. 97: 75–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockhart, B.E.L., Menke, J., Dahal, G., and Olszewski, N.E. 2000. Characterization and genomic analysis of tobacco vein clearing virus, a plant pararetrovirus that is transmitted vertically and related to sequences integrated in the host genome. J. Gen. Virol. 81: 1579–1585.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lot, H.E., Djiekpor, E., and Jacquemond, M. 1991. Characterization of the genome of cacao swollen shoot virus. J. General Virol. 72: 1735–1739.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mangenot, G., Alibert, H., and Basset, A. 1946. Sur le caractère du “swollen shoot” en Côte d’Ivoire. Rev. Int. Appl. Agric. 26: 173–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marmey, Ph., Bothner, B., Jacquot, E., de Kochko, A., Ong, C.A., Yot, P., Siuzdak, G., Beachy, R.N., and Fauquet, C. 1999. Rice tungro bacilliform virus ORF 3 encodes a single 37 kDa coat protein. Virology 253: 319–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClure, M.A. 2000. The complexities of genome analysis, the Retroid agent perspective. Bioinformatics 16: 79–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller, E., Jacquot, E., and Yot, P. 2001. Early detection of cacao swollen shoot virus using the polymerase chain reaction. J. Virol. Methods 93: 15–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollennu, L.A.A., and Hughes, J.d’A. 1991. The future of cocoa swollen shoot control in Ghana. Proc. Int. Cocoa Conf. of the 90s. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 25th to 28th September, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollennu, L.A.A., Hughes J.d’A., and Owusu, G.K. 1996. Mild strain cross-protection of cocoa against cocoa swollen shoot badnavirus. Trop. Sci. 36: 116–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollennu, L.A.A., and Owusu, G.K. 1997. Mild virus strain protection studies with cocoa swollen shoot badnavirus (CSSV) in Ghana. Proc. First Int. Cocoa Pests and Diseases Sem. Accra, Ghana, 6-10 November, 1995 pp 204–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollennu, L.A.A., Owusu, G.K., and Dzahini-Obiatey, H. 1999. Recent studies of mild strain cross-protection with cocoa swollen shoot virus. J. Ghana Sci. Assoc. 2(3): 5–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollennu, L.A.A., and Owusu, G.K. 2002. Field evaluation of the protective capability of CSSV mild strain NI against severe strains. Ghana J. Agric. Sci. (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollennu, L.A.A., and Owusu, G.K. 1989. Isolation and study of mild strains of cocoa swollen shoot virus for possible cross protection. In: Proc. IV Int. Plant Virus Epidemiology Workshop. Montpellier 1989, pp. 119–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollennu, L.A.A., Owusu, G.K., and Thresh, J.M. 1989. The control of cocoa swollen shoot disease in Ghana. Coc. Growers Bull. 46: 26–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owusu, G.K. 1971. Cocoa necrosis virus in Ghana. Trop. Agric. Trinidad 48: 133–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owusu, G.K. 1988. Virus diseases in Ghana. In: Virus diseases in Africa.Ed. Williams AO, Mbiele AL, Nkuaka N, OAU/STRC Scientific Publications, Lagos, Nigeria, pp 9–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owusu, G.K., Asare-Nyako, A., Lovi, N.K., and Halm, B.J. 1985. Association of cocoa necrosis virus infection with mineral deficiency. In: Ann. Rept. Cocoa Res. Inst. Ghana for 1979/80-1981/82, pp 158–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Padi, B., and Hollander, J. den. 1996. Morphological variation in Pianococcoides njalensis occurring on cocoa in Ghana. En.a Experiment. Appl. 79: 317–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Padi, B. 1997. Prospects for the control of cacao mealybugs. Proc. 1 st Int. Cocoa Pests and Diseases Sem. Accra, Ghana November 6-10, 1995, pp 249–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Padi, B., Ackonor, J.B., Sarfo, J.E., and Ollennu, L.A.A. 2002. Biological control of mealybug vectors of cocoa swollen shoot virus (CSSV). Rep. Cocoa Res. Inst. Ghana, 2000/2001 (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Padwick, G.W. 1956. Losses caused by plant diseases in the colonies. Phytopath. Papers 1: 1–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Partiot, M., Djiekpor, E.K., Amefia, Y.K., and Bakar, K.A. 1978. Le “swollen shoot” du cacaoyer au Togo: Inventaire preliminaire et premiere estimation des pertes causees par la maladie. Café Cacao The, 22: 217–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfeiffer, P., Hohn, T. 1983. Involvement of reverse transcription in the replication of cauliflower mosaic virus: A detailed model and test of some aspects. Cell 33: 781–789.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pooggin, M.M., Futterer, J., Skryabin, K.G., and Hohn, T. 1999. A short open reading frame terminating in front of a stable hairpin is the conserved feature in pregenomic RNA leaders of plant pararetroviruses. J. Gen. Virol. 80: 2217–2228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F. 1940. Transmission of’ swollen shoot’ disease of cacao. Trop. Agric. Trinidad 17: 98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F. 1941. Swollen shoot virus disease of cacao. (Review of Research Work to November, 1940). Trop. Agric. Trinidad 18: 87–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F. 1943. The diagnosis of swollen shoot disease of cacao. Trop. Agric. Trinidad 21: 156–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F. 1944. Swollen shoot in Trinidad. Trop. Agric. Trinidad 21: 105–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F. 1947. Virus diseases of cacao in West Africa. I Cacao viruses 1A, 1B, 1C and 1D. Ann. appl. Biol. 34: 388–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F. 1951. Virus research at the West African Cocoa Research Institute, Tafo, Gold Coast. Trop. Agric. Trinidad 28: 133–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F. 1981. The role of wild hosts in cocoa swollen shoot disease. In: Thresh JM, ed., Pests, pathogens and vegetation, London, Pitman, pp. 71–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F., and Palma, M. 1944. Observations on cacao in the Para Penninsula, Venezuela. Trop. Agric. Trinidad 21: 130–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F., Robertson, N.F., and Todd, J. Mc.A. 1950. Virus diseases of cacao in West Africa. V. Alternative host plants. Ann. appl. Biol. 37: 229–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F., and Strickland, A.H. 1949. Parasitism of mealybug vectors of swollen shoot of cocoa. Nature 163: 105–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F., and Strickland, A.H. 1948. Virus diseases of cacao in West Africa III. Technique in insect transmission. Ann. appl. Biol. 35: 53–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F., and Todd, J.McA. 1951. Virus diseases of cacao in Africa VIII. The search for virus-resistant cacao. Ann. appl. Biol. 38: 785–800.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnette, A.F., and Todd, J.Mc.A. 1955. Virus diseases of cacao in West Africa IX. Strain varieties and interference in virus IA. Ann. appl. Biol. 43: 433–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Purseglove, J.W. 1977. Tropical Crops. Dicotyledons. Longman, London 719 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renaud, R. 1957. Distribution of virus diseases of cocoa in the Ivory Coast. In: Proc. Cocoa Conf. London, pp 79–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richert-Pöggeler, K.R., and Shepherd, R.J. 1997. Petunia vein-clearing virus: a plant pararetrovirus with the core sequences for an integrase function. Virology 236: 137–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagemann, W., Paul, H.L., Adomako, D., and Owusu, G.K. 1983. The use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the detection of cocoa swollen shoot virus (CSSV). Phytopathol. Z. 106: 281–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagemann, W., Lesemann, D-E., Paul, H.L., Adomako, D., and Owusu, G.K. 1985. Detection and comparison of some Ghanaian isolates of cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) using an antiserum to CSSV strain 1A. Phytopathol. Z. 114: 78–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Senagum, M. 1961. Mosaic symptoms of cocoa leaves. Bull. No. 2 Phytopathology, University of Gadjah, Mada, Jakarta, pp 3–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steven, W.T. 1936. A new disease of cocoa in the Gold Coast. Gold Coast Farmer 5: 122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strickland, A.H. 1951a. The entomology of swollen shoot of cocoa — I. The insect species involved, with notes on their biology. Bull. Ent. Res. 41: 725–748.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strickland, A.H. 1951b. The entomology of swollen shoot of cocoa II. The bionomics and ecology of the species involved. Bul. Ent. Res. 42: 65–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorold, C.A. 1975. Diseases of cacao. Oxford, U.K: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M. 1958. The spread of virus disease in cacao. Cocoa Res. Inst. Technical Bull. No. 5: 36 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M. 1959. The control of cacao swollen shoot disease in Nigeria. Trop. Agric. 36: 35–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M. 1961. Some isolates of virus causing swollen shoot disease of cacao in Nigeria and their inter-relationships. Ann. appl. Biol. 49: 340–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M. 1988. Eradication as a virus disease control measure. In: Control of plant diseases: Costs and benefits. B.C. Clifford and E. Lester (eds). Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp155–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M., and Lister, R.M. 1960. Coppicing experiments on the spread and control of cacao swollen shoot disease in Nigeria. Ann. appl. Biol. 48: 65–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M., and Owusu, G.K. 1986. The control of cocoa swollen shoot disease in Ghana: an evaluation of eradication procedures, Crop Prot. 51: 41–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M., Owusu, G.L.K., and Ollennu, L.A.A. 1988b. Cocoa swollen shoot: an archetypal crowd disease. Z. Pfl Krank. Pflschutz 95: 428–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M., Owusu, G.K., Boamah, A., and Lockwood, G. 1988a. Ghanaian cocoa varieties and swollen shoot virus. Crop Prot. 7: 219–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresh, J.M., and Tinsley, T.W. 1959. The viruses of cacao. Tech. Bull. West African Cocoa Res. Inst. 7: 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinsley, T.W. 1953a. The strains of cacao swollen shoot viruses occurring in West Africa. In: Proc. West Africa Int. Cocoa Res. Conf. Tafo, Gold Coast, 1953, pp 20–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinsley, T.W. 1953b. Strains of the cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV), Ann. Rept. of the West African Cocoa Res. Inst. for 1952/3, pp 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinsley, T.W. 1955. The host range of cacao viruses. Rept. West African Cocoa Res. Inst. for 1954/55, pp 30–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Todd, J. Mc.A. 1951. An indigenous source of swollen shoot disease of cacao. Nature 167: 952.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsatsu, K., Djiekpor, K.E., and Bekuo, K. 1997. Lutte contre le swollen shoot du cacaoyer au Togo: sélection de matériel résistant et replantation des zones virosées (control of swollen shoot of cocoa in Togo: selection of resistant material and replanting of virus infected areas). Proc. First Int. Cocoa Pests and Diseases Sem. Accra, Ghana 6-10 November, 1995, pp 202–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, P.D. 1972. Diseases of oil palm and cocoa in North Sumatra. Document 17 UNDP/FAO Project INS/72/004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tzafrir, I., Ayala-Navarrete, L., Lockhart, B.E.L., and Olszewski, N.E. 1997. The N-terminal portion of the 216-kDa polyprotein of Commelina yellow mottle badnavirus is required for virus movement but not for replication. Virology 232: 359–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vander Plank, J.E. 1948. The relation between the size of field and the spread of plant disease into them. Part I, Crowd diseases Empire J. Exp. Agric. 16: 134–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, C.N., Chew, W.Y., and Rajaratnam, J.A. 1987. Tree and field crops of the wetter regions of the tropics. Longman, Harlow, Essex. 262 pp.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Agricultural Sciences, Imperial College, TN25 5AH, Wye, Ashford, Kent, UK

    M. J. Jeger

  2. Cocoa Research Institute, P.O. Box 8, Tafo, Ghana

    L. A. Ollenu

  3. INRA-Station de Pathologie, Végétale, Domaine Saint Maurice, BP94, F-84143, Montfavet Cedex, France

    L. S. Hagen & M. Jecquemond

Authors
  1. M. J. Jeger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. L. A. Ollenu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. L. S. Hagen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. Jecquemond
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Virology, Agricultural Research Organisation, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel

    Gad Loebenstein

  2. Mahyco Research Foundation, Hyderabad, India

    George Thottappilly (Executive Director) (Executive Director)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2003 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Jeger, M.J., Ollenu, L.A., Hagen, L.S., Jecquemond, M. (2003). Cocoa. In: Loebenstein, G., Thottappilly, G. (eds) Virus and Virus-like Diseases of Major Crops in Developing Countries. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0791-7_21

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0791-7_21

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-010-3729-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-007-0791-7

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation