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Images of the Future City pp 109–145Cite as

Time and Consumption

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Abstract

In this book we consider today’s consumption pattern to be an important motive force for various types of environmental load. A societal development towards sustainability requires fundamental changes in consumption patterns towards a less resource depleting life style. It is, however, quite natural that changes of this type will meet with considerable opposition since they depart from established habits, values or traditions. In an attempt to find ways around such hinders, it might be possible to seek a new balance between riches in goods or material benefits and riches in time. This way the time factor is given an important role in concepts about a more sustainable way of living, primarily in such dimensions as tempo, pace and temporal fragmentation.

Chapter written by Ronny Pettersson, Paul Fuehrer and Mona Mårtensson.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Reisch, L. A. “Time and wealth”, 2001, Røpke, I. “The dynamics of willingness to consume”, 1999 and Fuehrer P. Om tidens värde (On the value of time), 2010.

  2. 2.

    Frykman, J. and Löfgren, O. Den kultiverade människan (The cultivated individual), 1979, pp. 22–26 and Daly, K. J. Families & time, 1996, pp. 5–6.

  3. 3.

    Daly 1996, p. 6; Adam, B. Time, 2004, pp. 112–116.

  4. 4.

    Levine, R. A. Geography of time, 1997, pp. 55ff; Zerubavel, W. “The language of time”, 1987, pp. 343–356; and Mumford, L. The culture of cities, 1938, pp. 177f.

  5. 5.

    Levine 1997, p. 66; Zerubavel, E. “The standardization of time”, 1982, pp. 1–23; and Adam 2004, pp. 117–119.

  6. 6.

    Frykman and Löfgren 1979, pp. 34–36 and Daly 1996, p. 7.

  7. 7.

    Mumford, L. The city in history, 1961, pp. 97ff.

  8. 8.

    Koselleck, R. Futures past: on the semantics of historical time, 1985.

  9. 9.

    See Nowotny, H. Eigenzeit, Entstehung und Strukturierung eines Zeitgefühls, 1993.

  10. 10.

    Davies, K. Women and time, 1989, p. 107.

  11. 11.

    In the agrarian society male time was also relational.

  12. 12.

    Davies 1989, pp. 238, 245.

  13. 13.

    The female activity field has also expanded through the addition of many more possible occupations.

  14. 14.

    Davies 1989, pp. 100–109.

  15. 15.

    Ibid.

  16. 16.

    Adam, B. Timewatch, 1995, pp. 130–131.

  17. 17.

    Ibid., pp. 128–130.

  18. 18.

    Ibid., p. 134.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., p. 136.

  20. 20.

    Hubendick, B. Människoekologi (Human ecology), 1985, p. 529.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., pp. 531–532. See also von Weizsäcker, E. et al. Factor four, 1998, pp. 260–262.

  22. 22.

    Weber, M. The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, 1978 [1904–1905], pp. 48, 157–158.

  23. 23.

    See Hohn, H.-W. Die Zerstörung der Zeit (The destruction of time), 1984 and Lundmark, L. Tidens gång och tidens värde (The passage of time and its value), 1989, pp. 25ff.

  24. 24.

    Weber 1978 [1904–1905], pp. 59–60.

  25. 25.

    Marx, K. Grundrisse der Kritik der politischen Ökonomie (The basis for a critique of political economics), (1983 [1858]), pp. 89, 119f, 596, 716 and Marx, K. Das Kapital. Vol. 1, (1962 [1867]), p. 287.

  26. 26.

    Thompson, E. P. “Tid, arbetsdisciplin och industrikapitalism” (Time, work discipline and industrial capitalism), 1983 (1967), pp. 14–15, 26–28, 38–46 and Hohn 1984, pp. 138–144.

  27. 27.

    Thompson 1983 (1967), pp. 51–57; Cross, G. Time and money, 1993; and Sanne, C. Arbetets tid (The time for labor), 1995, pp. 113–140.

  28. 28.

    Thompson 1983 (1967), pp. 45–47.

  29. 29.

    Hellström, H. Kultur, arbete, tid (Culture, work, time), 1994, pp. 30–36.

  30. 30.

    Ibid., pp. 37–62 and Sanne 1995, pp. 141–197.

  31. 31.

    Hellström 1994, pp. 64–74.

  32. 32.

    Ibid., pp. 74–90 and Sanne 1995.

  33. 33.

    Hagberg, J.-E. Tekniken i kvinnornas händer (Technology in the hands of women), 1986, Chapter IV.

  34. 34.

    Ibid., p. 91.

  35. 35.

    Acceptera 1931. However, more technology did not result in less household work, see Nyberg, A. Tekniken – kvinnornas befriare? (Technology – Women’s liberator?), 1989.

  36. 36.

    Myrdal, A. and Myrdal, G. Kris i befolkningsfrågan (Crisis in the population question), 1934.

  37. 37.

    In Myrdal and Myrdal 1934, p. 312, there is a long list of women’s unwholesome leisure time activities. Stating that a whole book could be written about the confined triumph of women’s inventive capacity, they include such items as the many luxury tasks in household work, the petty bourgeois overburdened entertainment life, the overambitious housewife food and household interest and the desire for a narrow-minded social ostentation linked to it, as well as embroidery and knitting, sewing and crocheting, which they saw as merely filling walls and sofas, tables and bureau drawers. They also include the intense recreational reading among women, the exaggerated work-intensive shopping, sports and beauty care, protracted erotic, much of what was called free literature, artistic or scientific activities that would hardly bring in any money.

  38. 38.

    Quote from a brochure for Ystad 1936 Exhibition in Hagberg 1986, p. 163.

  39. 39.

    Quote from the Husmodersförbundets kommitté (Housewife Association Committee) in Hagberg 1986, p. 196.

  40. 40.

    Examples of changes achieved include that the average time for cleaning and washing was cut in half between 1937 and 1976. The reduction was not quite as large for meals and purchasing. See Åkerman, B. Familjen som växte ur sitt hem (The Family that became too large), 1941; Boalt, C. “Tid för hemarbete. Hur lång tid då?” (Time for work in the home. How much time?), 1983, pp. 59–62; Hagberg 1986 and Nyberg 1989.

  41. 41.

    Rudberg, K. “Stäng in arkitekten i kokvrån. Kvinnorna och bostadsplaneringen” (Shut the architect in the kitchen. Women and residential planning), 1983; Woodward, A. et al. Den nya generationen kollektivhus (The new generation collective housing), 1989; Michelsen, W. Grounding time-use in microspace, 1993.

  42. 42.

    The occupational activities of women during the first half of the twentieth century have been underestimated in official statistics. The reasons include the fact that women’s unpaid work on the farms was not counted as earning a living. See Göransson, A. “Den könsliga arbetsdelningen och dess strategiska konsekvenser” (Gender-based work division and its strategic consequences), 1978; Nyberg 1989 and Axelsson, C. Hemmafrun som försvann (The housewife who disappeared), 1992.

  43. 43.

    Nyberg 1989, p. 286.

  44. 44.

    Ibid., p. 235.

  45. 45.

    Göransson 1978.

  46. 46.

    Statistics Sweden, Historisk statistik för Sverige. Del 1. Befolkning (Historical statistics of Sweden. Part 1. Population), 1969, p. 83.

  47. 47.

    Nermo, M. Structured by gender, 1999, pp. 29–58.

  48. 48.

    Office of Regional Planning and Urban Transportation, Årsstatistik för Stockholms län och landsting, 2009, Table 14.1.

  49. 49.

    That is the time of the day not used for personal needs, such as sleeping and eating.

  50. 50.

    Statistics Sweden, Tid för vardagsliv (Time for normal living), 2003.

  51. 51.

    Gershuny, J. and Fisher, K. “Leisure”, 2000, pp. 623f.

  52. 52.

    Hemingway, J. L. “Emancipating leisure”, 1996, pp. 34f.

  53. 53.

    Ibid., p. 27.

  54. 54.

    Norling, I. and Gunnarsson, M. Fritid som socialt fenomen (Free time as a social phenomenon), 1994, pp. 102ff; compare with Hemingway 1996, pp. 31ff.

  55. 55.

    Weber 1978, pp. 27ff.

  56. 56.

    Two classics of free time research are Veblen, T. The theory of the leisure class, (1970 [1899]) and Lafargue, P. Le droit à la paresse, 1883.

  57. 57.

    Lafargue 1883.

  58. 58.

    Veblen (1970 [1899]).

  59. 59.

    Class differences had shrunk at the same time, most in the question of free time quantity. See Norling and Gunnarsson 1994, p. 104. See also Fritid 1976–1991 (Free time), 1993, p. 26; Gershuny, J. Changing times, 2000. And Gershuny, J. and Sullivan, O. “Time use, gender and public policy regimes”, 2003, where time use data from various OECD countries is studied from 1960s up through the 1990s. They find that the variation when it comes to time allocated to different free time activities is considerably larger within countries than between them.

  60. 60.

    See Kelly, J. R. Leisure, identities and interactions, 1983, pp. 14–24.

  61. 61.

    Bardmann, T. Die mißverstandene Freizeit, 1986, pp. 25ff. See also Negt, O. Lebendige Arbeit, enteignete Zeit, 1984 and Olszewska, A. and Roberts, K. (eds), Leisure and life-style, 1989.

  62. 62.

    Hochschild, A. The time bind, 1997 and Gershuny and Fisher 2000, pp. 620f.

  63. 63.

    See for example Schulze, G. Die Erlebnisgesellschaft, 1992, pp. 52ff.

  64. 64.

    For an American description of this dilemma, see Schor, J. The overworked American, 1991. Increasing, more intense work time tends to extend into evenings and weekends, and women’s double work results in a reduction of her free time and greater stress.

  65. 65.

    See Ziehe, T. and Stubenrauch, H. Plädoyer für ungewöhnliches Lernen, 1986.

  66. 66.

    Giddens, A. Modernity and self-identity, 1991, pp. 38f. See also Sörbom, A. Vart tar politiken vägen? (Whither politics?), 2002, pp. 66ff.

  67. 67.

    See Schulze 1992, pp. 58ff.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., pp. 63ff.

  69. 69.

    See Burenstam Linder, P. Den rastlösa välfärdsmänniskan (The restless welfare person), 1970, pp. 96ff.

  70. 70.

    The zapper’s nervous worry results in constant changes between TV channels in order not to miss the programs that are out of sight for the moment. This activity has even led to the development of a built-in technique where simultaneity is added to the TV allowing for screen splitting to show several channels at the same time. In Virilio, P. La Machine de Vision, 1991 there is a description of the zapper as a social type and zapping as at the same time an expression of restless searching and a sluggish, medialized culture.

  71. 71.

    Simmel, G. Philosophie des Geldes, 1999 [1900], p. 675.

  72. 72.

    Eriksen, T. H. Tyranny of the moment, 2001.

  73. 73.

    Ibid.

  74. 74.

    Adam 2004, p. 128.

  75. 75.

    Adam 2004, pp. 130–133 and Daly 1996, pp. 13–15, 34–39, 203–204, 221–223.

  76. 76.

    Kern, S. The culture of time and space 1880–1919, 1983.

  77. 77.

    Eriksen 2001.

  78. 78.

    Bourdieu, P. Sur la télévision, 1996 and Eriksen 2001.

  79. 79.

    Sennett, R. The corrosion of character, 1998 and Eriksen 2001, p. 143.

  80. 80.

    Eriksen 2001.

  81. 81.

    Southerton, D. Shove, E. and Warde, A. “Harried and hurried”: time shortage and the coordination of everyday life, 2001.

  82. 82.

    Eriksen 2001.

  83. 83.

    Southerton, Shove and Warde 2001.

  84. 84.

    Eriksen 2001.

  85. 85.

    Paoli, P. and Merllié, D. D. Third European survey on working conditions 2000, 2001.

  86. 86.

    Piltz, K. G. and Gústavsdóttir, K. Par- och familjeterapi vid stress och utmattning (Couple and family therapy during stress and exhaustion), 2003.

  87. 87.

    Davies 1989, p. 236.

  88. 88.

    The description by economist Burenstam-Linder (1970) of the mechanisms behind this phenomenon is discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. He calls it the time saver’s dilemma.

  89. 89.

    Giddens 1991, pp. 96, 101.

  90. 90.

    Nowotny 1993, pp. 23f; Castells, M. The rise of the network society, 1997, pp. 124f; Castells, M. End of millenium, 1998, pp. 350f; and even Rifkin, J. Time wars, 1987.

  91. 91.

    Nowotny 1993; Lundmark 1989, p. 150.

  92. 92.

    Mückenberger, U. (red.) Zeiten der Stadt, 2000 (Urban time), pp. 175ff.

  93. 93.

    Göteborgs-Posten (newspaper) 14/6 2004.

  94. 94.

    Hörning, K. H. et al. “Do technologies have time?”, 1999, pp. 293–308.

  95. 95.

    Burenstam Linder 1970, pp. 136–137.

  96. 96.

    Ibid., pp. 9–22.

  97. 97.

    Ibid., pp. 85–88.

  98. 98.

    Ibid., pp. 32, 48–52, 54–67.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., pp. 88–100, 101–116.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., pp. 33–35, 137, 148–152; Easterlin, R. A. Tillväxtens tidevarv (The era of growth), 2001, pp. 222–224, 232.

  101. 101.

    Andersson, Å. and Sylwan, P. Framtidens arbete and liv (Future work and living), 2000, pp. 17–18. This calculation suggests that in 2010 8.4% if the total lifetime is used for meals and 8.0 for work. See also Fogel, R. The Fourth Revival and the Future of Egalitarianism, 2000.

  102. 102.

    Fogel 2000. In order for the average American household to satisfy its annual need for food only 20% of the number of working hours needed in the 1880s. (260 hours versus 1405 hours).

  103. 103.

    Fogel 2000 and Andersson and Sylwan 2000, pp. 22–23.

  104. 104.

    Dahlman, C.J. and Klevmarken, A. Den privata konsumtionen (Private consumption), 1979, pp. 13–14 and Schön, L. En modern svensk ekonomihistoria (A modern Swedish economic history), 2000, pp. 388–400.

  105. 105.

    This description of the changes in consumption patterns is based on Sandelin, B. Den svenska ekonomin (The Swedish economy), 1997, pp. 66–71.

  106. 106.

    Sandelin 1997, pp. 64–65, 73–75.

  107. 107.

    Andersson and Sylwan 2000, pp. 24–25. Also pp. 26–27, and Andersson, Å. E. Kreativitet Storstadens framtid (Creativity is the future of the metropolis), 1985, pp. 262–289.

  108. 108.

    Easterlin 2001, pp. 222–224, 231–232.

  109. 109.

    Burenstam Linder 1970, pp. 51–52.

  110. 110.

    Ibid., pp. 48–50, 64, 87, 151.

  111. 111.

    Nye, D. E. Consuming power, 1998, pp. 7–8, 10–11.

  112. 112.

    Smil, V. Energy in world history, 1994, pp. 157–158 and Wrigley, E. A. Continuity, chance and change, 1990, pp. 68–132.

  113. 113.

    Smil 1994, pp. 187–188 and Simmons, I. G. Changing the face of the earth, 1990, pp. 212–215.

  114. 114.

    Smil 1994, pp. 205–207.

  115. 115.

    Kander, A. Economic growth, energy consumption and CO2 emissions in Sweden 1800–2000, 2002, pp. 58–60, 223–228.

  116. 116.

    Ibid., pp. 65–70.

  117. 117.

    Smil 1994, pp. 208, 220–22 and Berry, B. J. L. “Urbanization”, 1990, pp. 103–105 regarding cities in general; Clark, R. P. The global imperative, 1997, p. 55 and Hughes, J. D. Pan’s Travail, 1994, pp. 74, 80, 83 regarding Rome.

  118. 118.

    Smil 1994, pp. 132, 208–210; Berry 1990, pp. 107–113; Simmons 1990, pp. 233–234. Soja, E. and Kanai, M. The urbanization of the world. In: Burdett, R. and Sudjic, D. (eds), The endless city, 2007.

  119. 119.

    Smil 1994, pp. 210–213.

  120. 120.

    Enzensberger, H. M. “Reminiszenzen an den Überfluß”, 1996.

  121. 121.

    Reisch, L. A. “Ist das Thema Zeitwohlstand theoriefähig?”, 2002, p. 38.

  122. 122.

    Reich 2001; Scherhorn, G. “Güterwohlstand versus Zeitwohlstand”, as quoted in Biervert, B. and Held, M. Zeit in der Ökonomik, 1999, pp. 147–168; Müller, M. “Öko-soziale Zeitpolitik”, 1998, pp. 219–237 and Reheis, F. Die Kreativität der Langsamkeit, 1998.

  123. 123.

    Reisch 2002, pp. 50f.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Sustainable Communications, Royal Institute of Technology, SE-10044, Stockholm, Sweden

    Associate Professor Mattias Höjer

  2. Committee for Stockholm Research, 15025, SE-10465, Stockholm, Sweden

    Adjunct Professor Anders Gullberg

  3. Department of Economic History, Stockholm University, SE-10691, Stockholm, Sweden

    Dr. Ronny Pettersson

Authors
  1. Associate Professor Mattias Höjer
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  2. Adjunct Professor Anders Gullberg
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  3. Dr. Ronny Pettersson
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Correspondence to Mattias Höjer .

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Höjer, M., Gullberg, A., Pettersson, R. (2011). Time and Consumption. In: Images of the Future City. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0653-8_10

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