Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Continuity and Discontinuity in the Peopling of Europe pp 203–211Cite as

Virtual Synthesis of the Skull in Neanderthals by FESS

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology ((VERT))

Abstract

The measurement of strains in real skulls or the calculation of strain distribution in individual finite-element models is an inductive method that yields information about the stresses occurring in the a priori existing shape. In contrast, the approach taken here to determine the relationship between skull function and skull shape applies Wolff’s law through a deductive technique of structure synthesis. This paper describes the application of this method in the virtual synthesis of a Neanderthal skull. As a first step a non-specific homogeneous solid is constructed, giving the stresses ample volume to spread between points of force application and constraint. The FE software ANSYS 10 is used to form 10-noded tetrahedral finite elements with a maximum of 129,000 nodes. The initial conditions are the functional spaces for the brain, the eye openings, and the nose cavity. Further initial conditions are the muscle forces, and the placement of the dental arcade, including assumed bite and chewing forces and the spatial relationships of these with respect to each other. Enforcing equilibrium of forces, the primary 3D stress flows in each load case are summarized by a physiological superposition, which accumulates the highest value of compressive stress in each finite element. If the stress-free parts are eliminated and the summarized stress flows are maintained, a reduced model appears which is very similar to the real skull. This reduction of shape can be repeated iteratively and leads to a more exact form. The final FE-model is presented by using the CAD software CATIA V5 and the resultant cross-sections are compared with CT scans of a real Neanderthal skull. Changes in the form of the dental arcade, its position relative to the braincase, the origins of muscles, or the volume of the brain lead to models that clearly resemble morphological differences between species or genera. The deductive virtual synthesis of the typical skull of Neanderthals using the finite-element structure synthesis (FESS) technique demonstrates the direct correlation between functional loading and the biological structure and shape and can be used to test hypotheses regarding the ­relationship between structure and function during skull evolution.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ascenzi, A., & Bonucci, E. (1968). The compressive properties of ­single osteons. The Anatomical Record, 161, 377–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bookstein, F., Schäfer, K., Prossinger, H., Seidler, H., Fieder, M., Stringer, C., Weber, G. W., Arsuaga, J. L., Slice, D. E., Rohlf, F. J., Recheis, W., Mariam, A. J., & Marcus, L. F. (1999). Comparing frontal cranial profiles in archaic and modern homo by morphometric analysis. The Anatomical Record, 257, 217–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, D. R., & Wong, M. (1988). Mechanical stresses and endochondral ossification in the chondroepiphysis. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 6, 148–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, C. (1859). The origin of the species. London. (1963). Die Entstehung der Arten. Philipp Reclam, Stuttgart.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fastnacht, M., Hess, N., Frey, E., & Weiser, H. P. (2002). Finite-element analysis in vertebrate palaeontology. Senckenbergiana Lethaea, 82, 195–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, H. M. (1988). Vital biomechanics: Proposed general concepts for skeletal adaptations to mechanical usage. Calcified Tissue International, 42, 145–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Imai, M., Shibata, T., Moriguchi, K., & Takada, Y. (1990). Fluid-path in the mandible and maxilla. Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica, 67(4), 243–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen, M. (1920). On Boneformation, its relation to tension and pressure. London: Longmans, Green & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, C. F., Franciscus, R. G., & Holton, N. E. (2005). Bite force pro­duction capability and efficiency in Neanderthals and modern humans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 127, 121–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pauwels, F. (1965). Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur funktionellen Anatomie des Bewegungsapparates. Berlin: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Pidaparti, R. M., & Burr, D. B. (1992). Collagen fibre orientation and geometry effects on the mechanical properties of secondary osteons. Journal of Biomechanics, 25(8), 869–880.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft, H., & Witzel, U. (2004). Functional structure of the skull in hominoidea. Folia Primatologica, 75, 219–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft, H., Witte, H., & Witzel, U. (2002). Pneumatized spaces, sinuses and spongy bones in the skulls of primates. Anthropology Anzeiger, 60, 67–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Qin, L., Mak, A. T., Cheng, C. W., Hung, L. K., & Chan, K. M. (1999). Histomorphological study on pattern of fluid movement in cortical bone in goats. The Anatomical Record, 255(4), 380–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qin, X. Y., Kaplan, T., Saldanha, A., & Rubin, C. (2003). Fluid pressure gradients, arising from oscillations in intramedullary pressure, is correlated with the formation of bone and inhibition of intracortical porosity. Journal of Biomechanics, 36, 1427–1437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rayfield, E. J. (1998). Finite-element analysis of the snout of Megalosaurus bucklandi. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 18, 71A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rayfield, E. J. (2004). Cranial mechanics and feeding in Tyrannosaurus rex. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 271, 1451–1459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rossmann, T., Witzel, U., & Preuschoft, H. (2005). Mechanical stress as the main factor in skull design of the fossile reptile Proterosuchus (Archosauria). In T. Rossmann & C. Tropea (Eds.), Bionik, Aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse in Natur-Ingenieur- und Geisteswissenschaft (pp. 517–528). Berlin: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sverdlova, N., & Witzel, U. (2010). Principles of determination and verification of muscle forces in the human musculoskeletal system: Muscle forces to minimise bending stress, Journal of Biomechanics, 43, 387–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U. (1985). Zur Biomechanik der ossaeren Schafteinbettung von Hueftendoprothesen, 5. Symposium ueber isoelstische RM-Hueftprothesen. Bettlach, Schweiz: Mathys.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U. (1993). Biomechanische Untersuchungen am Verbundsystem des Binde- und Stützgewebes mit der Methode der finiten Elemente. In H. J. Pesch, H. Stoess, & B. Kummer (Eds.), Osteologie aktuell (Vol. VII, pp. 91–97). Berlin: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U. (1994). Ueber die Spannungsverteilung in der Calvaria aufgrund physiologischer und traumatisierender Beschleunigungen des Schaedels. Osteologie, Band 3, Suppl 1, abstracts. Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, p. 50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U. (2006). Virtual synthesis of the skull in Neanderthals by FESS. In: v. Koenigswald, W., Litt, T. (Eds.), 150 years of Neanderthal discoveries. Abstract. Terra Nostra 2006/2, (p. 141) Berlin:Geo Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U., & Hoffmann, P. (1993). Ueber den Einfluss der durch Beschleunigungskraefte belasteten Dura mater encephali auf die Spannungsverteilung in der Calvaria. Osteologie Band 2, Suppl 1, abstracts. (p. 37) Bernlin:Verlag Hans Huber

    Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U., & Preuschoft, H. (1999). The bony roof of the nose in humans and other primates. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 238, 103–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U., & Preuschoft, H. (2002). Function-dependent shape ­characteristics of the human skull. Anthropology Anzeiger, 60, 113–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U., & Preuschoft, H. (2005). Finite-element model construction for the virtual synthesis of the skulls in vertebrates: Case study of Diplodocus. The Anatomical Record, 283A, 391–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Witzel, U., Preuschoft, H., & Sick, H. (2004). The role of the zygomatic arch in the statics of the skull and its adaptive shape. Folia Primatologica, 75, 202–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, J. (1892). Das Gesetz der transformation der Knochen. Berlin: Hirschwald.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, M., & Carter, D. R. (1990). A theoretical model of endochondral ossification and bone architectural construction in long bone ontogeny. Anatomy and Embryology, 181, 523–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1971). The finite element method in engineering science. London: McsGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The author is greatly obliged to Mrs J. Mannhardt (cand. ing.), Mr. V. Meimann (Dipl.-Ing.) and Mr. M. Neges (cand. ing.) who executed countless calculations and prints with incredible engagement. His special thanks go to Prof. H. Preuschoft and Prof. G.-C. Weniger for the procurement of skull castings and to Dr. L. Bondioli, Roma, Museo Nazionale “L. Pigorini” for several CT scans of the skull of Homo neanderthalensis (Guattari). The latter contact was given by Prof. G. W. Weber to whom he feels bound with great thanks. He would also like to thank an anonymous reviewer for his careful reading and constructive criticism of his article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research Group of Biomechanics, Ruhr-University Bochum, D 44780, Bochum, Germany

    Ulrich Witzel

Authors
  1. Ulrich Witzel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ulrich Witzel .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , EFS, Laboratoire d'Anthropologie biocult, Université de la Méditerranée, Bd Pierre Dramard, Marseille Cedex 15, 13344, France

    Silvana Condemi

  2. Stiftung Neanderthal Museum, Talstraße 300, Mettmann, 40822, Germany

    Gerd-Christian Weniger

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Witzel, U. (2011). Virtual Synthesis of the Skull in Neanderthals by FESS. In: Condemi, S., Weniger, GC. (eds) Continuity and Discontinuity in the Peopling of Europe. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0492-3_18

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation