Abstract
The classic Surtarbrandur floras of Iceland are 12 Ma (late Serravallian) and belong to the Brjánslækur-Seljá Formation. They make up the most diverse macroflora known from the Miocene of Iceland, with the highest number of exotic angiosperms recorded from this period (Laurophyllum, Liriodendron, Magnolia, Platanus, and Sassafras). Unlike in the older and younger floras, Fagus is absent from the macrofossil and pollen record, suggesting that the older F. friedrichii had not yet been replaced by the later immigrating F. gussonii. The plant assemblages recovered from the Brjánslækur-Seljá Formation represent azonal riparian lowland and upland forests and zonal hardwood forests in the vicinity of a lake followed higher up by mixed broad-leaved deciduous and conifer forests. The plant assemblages reflect the culmination of warm and moist vegetation in Iceland in the late Serravallian. The climatic and vegetation optimum recorded in Iceland for this stage does not reflect the general trend of cooling after the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum (17–15 Ma), as seen in many other floras in the northern hemisphere.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Akhmetiev, M. A., Bratzeva, G. M., Giterman, R. E., Golubeva, L. V., & Moiseyeva, A. I. (1978). Late Cenozoic stratigraphy and flora of Iceland. Transactions of the Academy of Sciences USSR, 316, 1–188.
Armstrong, R. L., Lemann, W. P., & Malde, H. E. (1975). K-Ar dating, Quaternary and Neogene volcanic rocks of the Snake River Plain, Idaho. American Journal of Science, 274, 225–252.
Aulenback, K. R., & LePage, B. A. (1998). Taxodium wallisii sp. nov. – First occurrence of Taxodium from the Upper Cretaceous. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 159, 367–390.
Berggren, W., Kent, D. V., Swisher, C. C. III., & Aubry, M.-P. (1995). A revised Cenozoic geochronology and chronostratigraphy. In W. A. Berggren, D. V. Kent, M.-P. Aubry, & J. Hardenbol (Eds.), Geochronology, time scales and global stratigraphic correlation (pp. 129–212). Tulsa, Oklahoma: SEPM Special Publication 54.
Chaloner, B. W. (1999). Plant and spore compression in sediments. In T. P. Jones & N. P. Rowe (Eds.), Fossil plants and spores: modern techniques (pp. 36–40). London: Geological Society.
Chaney, R. W., & Axelrod, D. I. (1959). Miocene Floras of the Columbia Plateau. Part II. Systematic Considerations (part II, pp. 135–237). Washington, DC.: Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 617.
Denk, T., Grímsson, F., & Kvaček, Z. (2005). The Miocene floras of Iceland and their significance for late Cainozoic North Atlantic biogeography. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 149, 369–417.
Flora of China Editorial Committee. (1999). Flora of China, Cycadaceae through Fagacaeae (Vol. 4). St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 453 pp.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee. (1993). Flora of North America North of Mexico, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms (Vol. 2). New York: Oxford University Press. 496 pp.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee. (1997). Flora of North America North of Mexico, Magnoliophyta: Magnoliidae and Hamamelidae (Vol. 3). New York: Oxford University Press. 616 pp.
Flower, B. P., & Kennett, J. P. (1994). The middle Miocene climatic transition: East Antarctic ice sheet development, deep ocean circulation and global carbon cycling. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 108, 537–555.
Friedrich, W. L. (1966). Zur Geologie von Brjánslaekur (Nordwest-Island) unter besonderen Berücksichtigung der fossilen Flora. Sonderveröffentlichungen des Geologischen Institutes der Universität Köln, 10, 1–110.
Friedrich, W. L., & Símonarson, L. A. (1981). Die fossile Flora Islands: Zeugin der Thule- Landbrücke. Spektrum der Wissenschaft, 10(1981), 22–31.
Grímsson, F. (2007). The Miocene floras of Iceland. Origin and evolution of fossil floras from North-West and Western Iceland, 15 to 6 Ma. Ph.D. thesis, University of Iceland, Reykjavík. 273 pp.
Heer, O. (1868). Flora fossilis arctica 1. Die Fossile Flora der Polarländer enthaltend die in Nordgrönland, auf der Melville-Insel, im Banksland, am Mackenzie, in Island und in Spitzbergen entdeckten fossilen Pflanzen. Zürich: F. Schulthess. 192 pp.
Iwatsuki, K., Yamazaki, T., Boufford, D. E., & Ohba, H. (Eds.). (2000). Flora of Japan. Vol. 1 Pteridophyta and Gymnospermae. Tokyo: Kodansha. 302 pp., reprint of 1995.
Jóhannesson, H., & Sæmundsson, K. (1989). Geological map of Iceland. 1:500 000. Bedrock Geology (1st ed.). Reykjavík: Icelandic Museum of Natural History and Icelandic Geodetic Survey.
Komarov, V. L. (1970). Flora of the U.S.S.R (Vol. 5). Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations. 593 pp.
Köppen, W., & Geiger, R. (1928). Klimakarte der Erde. Wall-map 150 cm × 200 cm. Gotha: Verlag Justus Perthes.
Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., & Rubel, F. (2006). World map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 15, 259–263.
Kovar-Eder, J., & Kvaček, Z. (2007). The integrated plant record (IPR) to reconstruct Neogene vegetation: the IPR-vegetation analysis. Acta Palaeobotanica, 47, 391–418.
Kovar-Eder, J., Jechorek, H., Kvaček, Z., & Parashiv, V. (2008). The integrated plant record: an essential tool for reconstructing Neogene zonal vegetation in Europe. Palaios, 23, 97–111.
Kryshtofovich, A. N., & Baikovskaya, T. I. (1965). Sarmatian flora of Krynka. Moscow-Leningrad: Russian Academy of Sciences. 134 pp.
Kutuzkina, E. F. (1964). The Sarmatian Flora of Armavir (in Russian). In A. L. Takhtajan (Ed.), Palaeobotanica V (pp. 145–230). Moscow-Leningrad: Nauka.
Kvaček, Z., Velitzelos, D., & Velitzelos, E. (2002). Late Miocene flora of Vegora Macedonia N. Greece. Athens: Korali Publications. 175 pp.
Kvaček, Z., Kováč, M., Kovar-Eder, J., Doláková, N., Jechorek, H., Parashiv, V., Kováčová, M., & Sliva, L. (2006). Miocene evolution of landscape and vegetation in the Central Paratethys. Geologica Carpathica, 57, 295–310.
Landmælingar Íslands. (1984). Uppdráttur Íslands. Blað 13, Barðaströnd. Scale 1:100000.
Mai, H. D. (1995). Tertiäre Vegetationsgeschichte Europas. Jena: Gustav Fischer. 691 pp.
Manchester, S. R. (1999). Biogeographical relationships of North American Tertiary floras. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 86, 472–522.
Manchester, S. R., Chen, Z.-D., Lu, A.-M., & Uemura, K. (2009). Eastern Asian endemic seed plant genera and their paleogeographic history throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Journal of Systematics and Evolution, 47, 1–42.
Matthews, J. F., Jr., & Ovenden, L. E. (1990). Late Tertiary Plant Macrofossils from localities in Arctic/Subarctic North America: a review of the data. Arctic, 43, 364–392.
McDougall, I., Kristjansson, L., & Saemundsson, K. (1984). Magnetostratigraphy and geochronology of northwest Iceland. Journal of Geophysical Research, 89, 7029–7060.
Ohwi, J. (1965). Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1067 pp.
Saemundsson, K. (1979). Outline of the geology of Iceland. Jökull, 29, 7–28.
Schenk, M. F., Thienpont, C.-N., Koopman, W. J. M., Gilissen, L. J. W. J., & Smulders, M. J. M. (2008). Phylogenetic relationships in Betula (Betulaceae) based on AFLP markers. Tree Genetics and Genomes, 4, 911–924.
Thompson, R. S., Anderson, K. H., and Bartlein, P. J. (1999). Atlas of relations between climatic parameters and distribution of important trees and shrubs in North America-Hardwoods. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 1650-B, 1–423.
Utescher, T., & Mosbrugger, V. (2009). Palaeoflora database. http://www.geologie.unibonn.de/Palaeoflora. Accessed 27 September 2010.
Wang, C.-W. (1961). The forests of China, with a survey of grassland and desert vegetation. Maria Moors Cabot Foundation, Publ. No. 5. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. 282 pp.
White, J. M., Ager, T. A., Adam, D. P., Leopold, E. B., Giu, G., Jetté, H., & Schweger, C. E. (1997). An 18 million year record of vegetation and climate change in northwestern Canada and Alaska: tectonic and global climatic correlates. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 130, 293–306.
Windisch, P. (1886). Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Tertiärflora von Island. Inaugural-Dissertation behufs Erlangung der philosophischen Doctorwürde der Hohen philosophischen Facultät der Universität Leipzig. Halle a. d. S.: Gebauer-Schwetschke’sche Buchdruckerei. 52 pp.
Windisch, P. (1886b). Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Tertiärflora von Island. Zeitschrift für Naturwissenschaften, 4(5), 215–262.
Worm, O. (1655). Museum Wormianum seu historia rerum rariorum. Leiden, Amsterdam: Ex officina Elseviriorum. 389 pp.
Zachos, J. C., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., & Billups, K. (2001). Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science, 292, 686–693.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix 5.1
Appendix 5.1
Floristic composition of the 12 Ma sedimentary formation of Iceland compared to contemporaneous northern hemispheric mid-latitude floras from North America and western Eurasia.
Brjánslælir-Seljá flora, Iceland [ca 65°31¢ N 23°12¢ W] 12 Ma This study | |
|---|---|
3 | Equisetum sp. |
1 | Hepaticae gen. et spec. indet. |
1 | Lycopodium sp. |
1, 3 | Osmunda parschlugiana |
1 | Polypodiaceae gen. et spec. indet. 1 |
1 | Polypodiaceae gen. et spec. indet. 2 |
1 | Trilete spore fam. gen. et spec. indet. 1 |
1 | Ephedra sp. |
1-3 | Abies steenstrupiana |
1,3 | Cathaya sp. |
1,3 | Cryptomeria anglica |
1 | Glyptostrobus sp. |
1-3 | Picea sect. Picea |
1 | Pinus sp. 1 |
1 | Sciadopitys sp. |
1 | Sequoia sp. |
1,3 | Tsuga sp. |
1-3 | Acer askelssonii |
1-3 | Acer crenatifolium subsp. islandicum |
1 | aff. Cedrelospermum sp. |
1-3 | Alnus cecropiifolia |
1-3 | Alnus gaudinii |
1-3 | Betula islandica |
1,3 | aff. Calycanthaceae |
1-3 | Carpinus sp. MT1 |
1-3 | Carpinus sp. MT2 |
1 | Carya sp. |
2 | cf. Fraxinus sp. |
3 | cf. Juglans |
3 | Comptonia hesperia |
1,3 | Corylus sp. |
1 | Cyperaceae gen. et spec. indet. A |
1 | Dicotylophyllum sp. A |
1 | Ilex sp. 1 |
3 | Laurophyllum sp. (Laurus) |
1 | Lemna sp. |
3 | Liriodendron procaccinii |
1,3 | Lonicera sp. 1 |
3 | Magnolia sp. |
3 | Phragmites sp. |
1 | Platanus sp. |
1 | Pollen type 1 |
1 | Pollen type 2 |
1 | Pollen type 3 |
1 | Pollen type 4 |
1 | Pollen type 5 |
1 | Pollen type 6 |
1 | Pollen type 7 |
1,2 | Populus sp. A (ex group P. tremula L.) |
1,3 | Pterocarya sp. |
1 | Rhododendron sp. 1 |
1 | Rhododendron sp. 2 |
1,3 | Rosaceae gen et. spec. indet. A |
1,3 | Rosaceae gen et. spec. indet. B |
1,3 | Rosaceae gen et. spec. indet. C |
1-3 | Salix gruberi |
1 | Sanguisorba sp. |
3 | Sassafras ferrettianum |
3 | Smilax sp. |
1 | Tetracentron atlanticum |
3 | Ulmus cf. pyramidalis |
1 | Valerianaceae gen. et spec. indet. |
1 | Viburnum sp. |
Stinking Water flora [ca 44°N 118°W] 12-11 Ma (K-Ar) Chaney, 1959 | |
|---|---|
1 | Polypodiaceae |
1 | Ephedra sp. |
1,3 | Abies chaneyi Mason |
1 | Cedrus sp. |
1 | Cupressaceae/Taxodiaceae/Taxaceae |
3 | Glyptostrobus oregonensis Brown |
3 | Keteleeria heterophylloides (Berry) Brown |
1,3 | Picea lahontense MacGinitie |
1,3 | Picea magna MacGinitie |
1,3 | Picea sonomensis Axelrod |
1,3 | Pinus harneyana Chaney |
1 | Tsuga sp. |
1,3 | Acer bendirei Lesquereux |
1,3 | Acer bolanderi Lesquereux |
1,3 | Acer columbianum Chaney |
1,3 | Acer minor Knowlton |
1,3 | Acer oregonianum Knowlton |
1,3 | Acer scottiae MacGinitie |
3 | Ailanthus Indiana (MacGinitie) Brown |
1,3 | Alnus harneyana Chaney |
1,3 | Alnus hollandiana Jennings |
1,3 | Alnus relatus (Knowlton) Brown |
1 | Asteraceae |
1 | Betula sp. |
1 | Carya sp. |
1 | Caryophyllaceae/Chenopodiaceae |
3 | Cedrela trainii Arnold |
1 | Celtis sp. |
1 | Corylus sp. |
1 | Ericaceae |
1 | Fagus sp. |
1 | Fraxinus sp. |
3 | Gymnocladus dayana (Knowlton) Chaney |
3 | Hydrangea bendirei (Ward) Knowlton |
1 | Juglans sp. |
1 | Liquidambar sp. |
3 | Mahonia reticulate (MacGinitie) Brown |
3 | Mahonia simplex (Newberry) Arnold |
1 | Nyssa sp. |
1 | Onagraceae |
1 | Ostrya sp. |
1,3 | Platanus dissecta Lesquereux |
3 | Populus lindgreni Knowlton |
1,3 | Potamogeton parva Brown |
3 | Ptelea miocenica Berry |
1,3 | Pterocarya mixta (Knowlton) Brown |
1,3 | Quercus dayana Knowlton |
1,3 | Quercus hannibali Dorf |
1,3 | Quercus prelobata Condit |
1,3 | Quercus pseudolyrata Lesquereux |
1,3 | Quercus simulatea Knowlton |
3 | Rosa harneyana Chaney |
1,3 | Salix hesperia (Knowlton) Condit |
1,3 | Salix succorensis Chaney |
1,3 | Smilax magna Chaney |
3 | Spiraea harneyana Chaney |
1,3 | Typha lesquereuxi Cockerell |
1,3 | Ulmus speciosa Newberry |
Krynka flora [ca 47°30 ¢ N 38°35¢ E] Latest Badenian, “Presarmatian” Kryshtofovich and Baikovskaya 1965; Mai 1995 | |
|---|---|
3 | Acer compositifolium Baik. |
3 | Acer pseudomiyabei Baik. |
2,3 | Acer pseudoplatanus L. |
var. paucidentata Gaud. | |
Acer sp. | |
3 | Acer sp. cf. A. platanoides L. |
2,3 | Acer subcampestre Goepp. |
var. acuminatolobatum Baik. | |
3 | Acer subcampestre Goepp. |
var. integrilobifolium Baik. | |
3 | Acer subcampestre Goepp. |
3 | var. macrophyllum Baik. |
3 | Ailanthus confucii Ung. |
3 | Alnus kefersteinii (Goepp.) Ung. |
3 | Alnus sp. |
3 | Berberis longaepetiolata Baik. |
3 | Betula grandifolia Ett. |
2 | Betula sp. |
3 | Betula tanaitica Baik. |
3 | Bumelia sp. |
3 | Buxus pliocenica Sap. et Mar. |
2 | Carex sp. |
2 | Carpinus cf. laxiflora Bl. |
2,3 | Carpinus grandis Ung. |
2 | Carpinus marmaroschia Iljinskaja |
3 | Carya denticulata (Web.) Iljinskaja |
3 | Celtis trachytica Ett. |
3 | Ceratophyllum sniatkovii Krysht. |
3 | Cercis turgaica Usnadze |
3 | Clerodendron ovalifolium Baik. |
3 | Clethra maximoviczii Nath. |
3 | Cornus attenuata Ett. |
3 | Cornus cf. acuminata Web. |
3 | Cornus megaphylla Hu et Chaney |
3 | Cornus oeningensis (Heer) Baik. |
3 | Cornus studeri Heer |
3 | Corylus insignis Heer |
3 | Cotoneaster sp. cf. C. andromedae Ung. |
3 | Crataegus praemonogyna Krysht. |
3 | Daphne limnophylla (Ung.) Baik. |
3 | Diospyros brachysepala A. Br. |
3 | Elaeagnus sp. |
3 | Eucommia palaeoulmoides Baik. |
3 | Fagus orientalis var. fossilis (Lipsky) Palibin |
2 | Fagus sp. |
2 | Genista sp. |
3 | Hibiscus splendens Baik. |
3 | Hovenia thunbergii (Nath.) Baik. |
3 | Hydrangea sp. |
3 | Ilex falsanii Sap. et Mar. |
3 | Juglans zaisanica Iljinskaja |
3 | Laburnum sp. |
3 | Laurocerasus sp. |
3 | Leguminosae sp. |
3 | Ligustrum vulgare L. var. fossile Palib. |
2 | Liquidambar sp. |
3 | Lonicera sp. A |
3 | Lonicera sp. B |
3 | Loranthus sp. |
3 | Magnolia cf. M. dianae Ung. |
3 | Magnolia cuneifolia Baik. |
3 | Magnolia sp. |
3 | Mespilus sp. |
2,3 | Nyssa vertumnii Ung. |
2,3 | Ostrya kryshtofovichii Baik. |
3 | Paliurus sp. |
3 | Parrotia pristina (Ett.) Stur |
3 | Photinia acuminata Baik. |
3 | Physocarpus sp. |
3 | Pistacia cf. P. miocenica Sap. |
3 | Polygonum ukrainicum Baik. |
3 | Populus balsamoides Goepp. |
3 | Prunus palaeocerasus Ett. |
3 | Pyracantha sp. |
3 | Pyrus sarmatica (Krysht.) Baik. |
3 | Quercus pseudocastanea Goepp. |
3 | Quercus pseudorobur Kov. |
3 | Quercus sp. A |
3 | Quercus sp. B |
2 | Ranunculus sp. |
3 | Rhododendron megiston Ung. |
3 | Rhododendron sp. |
3 | Rhus noeggerathii Weber |
3 | Rosa lignitum Engelhardt (non Heer) |
3 | Rubus palaeohirtus Baik. |
3 | Salix media A. Braun |
3 | Salvinia natanella Shap. |
3 | Sambucus palaeoracemosa Baik. |
3 | Sapindus cupanioides Ett. |
3 | Sassafras ferretianum Massal. |
3 | Schisandra sp. |
3 | Skimmia sp. |
3 | Spiraea sp. |
3 | Staphylea cf. pinnata L. |
3 | Styrax protoobassia (Nath.) Tanai et Onoe |
3 | Styrax pseudoofficinale Baik. |
3 | Styrax sp. |
2 | Tilia sp. |
3 | Ulmus carpinoides Goepp. |
3 | Ulmus longifolia Ung. |
2 | Ulmus sp. |
3 | Vaccinium pseudouliginosum Krysht. |
3 | Vitis praevinifera Sap. |
3 | Vitis sp. |
3 | Vitis subintegra Sap. |
3 | Zelkova ungeri Kov. |
Armavir flora [ca 45°00’ N 41°07’ E] Middle/Late Sarmatian Kutuzkina 1964; Mai 1995 | |
|---|---|
3 | Pteridium sp. |
3 | Ginkgo adiantoides (Ung.) Heer |
2 | Pinus sp. |
3 | Acer decipiens A. Br. |
2 | Acer sp. |
3 | Alnus kefersteinii (Goepp.) Ung. |
3 | Amelanchier sp. cf. A. rotudifolia (Lam.) Dum.-Cours. |
3 | Berberis sp. |
Betula sp. | |
3 | Bumelia sp. (cf. B. lanuginosa (Michx.) Pers.) |
3 | Calycanthus sp. (cf. C. florida L.) |
3 | Carpinus grandis Ung. |
3 | Carya serrifolia (Goepp.) Kräusel |
3 | Carya sp. |
3 | Castanea atavia Unger |
3 | Celastrus palibinii Kutuzk |
3 | Cercidiphyllum crenatum (Ung.) R. W. Brown |
3 | Cinnamomum cf. lanceolatum (Ung.) Heer |
3 | Cinnamomum polymorphum (A. Br.) Heer |
3 | Clematis sp. |
3 | Cornus cf. sanguinea L. |
3 | Cornus sp. |
3 | Corylus sp. |
3 | Cotinus coggygria Scop. |
3 | Cyclocarya cycloptera (Schlecht.) Iljinskaja |
3 | Diospyros brachysepala A. Br. |
3 | Fagus orientalis Lipsky fossilis Palibin |
3 | Fraxinus inaequalis Heer |
3 | Fraxinus grossidentata Laurent |
3 | Gleditsia allemanica Heer |
3 | Hamamelis miomollis Hu et Chaney |
3 | Juglans acuminata A. Br. |
3 | Laurus sp. |
3 | Leguminosites sp. |
3 | Ligustrum sp. (cf. L. vulgare L.) |
3 | Liquidambar europaea B. Br. |
3 | Liquidambar sp. |
3 | Loranthus palaeoeuropaeus Kutuzk |
3 | Myrica laevigata (Heer) Sap. |
3 | Myrica lignitum (Ung.) Sap. |
3 | Myrica palaeogale Pilar |
3 | Parrotia pristina Ett. |
3 | Periploca angustifolia Kutuzk. |
3 | Phragmites oeningensis A. Br. |
3 | Phyllites sp. |
3 | Phyllites sp. (cf. Ilex fargesii Franch.) |
3 | Platanus lineariloba Kolak. |
3 | Podogonium knorrii Heer |
3 | Populus balsamoides Goepp. |
3 | Populus latior A. Br. |
3 | Prunus sp. |
3 | Pterocarya castaneifolia (Goepp.) Schlecht. |
3 | Punica granatum L. |
3 | Pyracantha coccinea Roem. |
3 | Quercus castaneifolia C. A. Mey. var. fossilis |
3 | Quercus neriifolia A. Br. |
3 | Quercus pseudorobur Kov. |
3 | Rhododendron sp. (cf. R. ponticum L.) |
3 | Rhus blitum Sap. |
3 | Robinia regelii Heer |
3 | Rosa sp. |
3 | Salix angusta A. Br. |
Salix integra Goepp. | 2 |
|---|---|
2 | Salix varians Goepp. |
Typha latissima A. Br. | 2 |
Ulmus carpinoides Goepp. | 2 |
Ulmus longifolia Ung. | 2 |
Vaccinium protoarctostaphyllus Kolak. | 2 |
Vitis sp. | 2 |
Zelkova ungeri Kov. | 2 |
Zizyphus sp. | 2 |
Boldface indicates that the genus is present in the Brjánslækur-Seljá Formation. Grey shading indicates that the genus is present in the older Selárdalur-Botn Formation (15 Ma). 1 based on pollen, spores; 2 based on leaves and/or fruit/seed fossils; 3 based on leaf fossils
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Denk, T., Grímsson, F., Zetter, R., Símonarson, L.A. (2011). The Classic Surtarbrandur Floras. In: Late Cainozoic Floras of Iceland. Topics in Geobiology, vol 35. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0372-8_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0372-8_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-0371-1
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-0372-8
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)